SCHOOL HISTORY 
OF NEBRASKA 



J. STERLING MORTON 

AND 

ALBERT WATKINS 




^05 s S sr^ & 




WESTERN PUBLISHING AND 
ENGRAVING COMPANY 




Class E._L 

Book._ 



Jl2i 



GoByrightN". 



COF^iGifr DEPosrr. 



JAN 31 Ib2i 




J. Sterling Morton 
At 22 years of age 



School History of Nebraska 

Based on the History of Nebraska 

By 
J. Sterling Morton and Albert Watkins 



Abridged and Compiled for the Publishers 

Edited By 
James A. Beattie, A.M., L.L.D. 

Member of the Nebraska State Historical Society and of the Mississippi Valley 
Historical Society; Formerly Professor of Mathematics in Oskaloosa College, Iowa; 
President of the State Normal School, Peru, Nebraska, and of the Eastern State 
Normal School, Weston, Oregon; Vice-President and Professor of Education in 
Cotner University, Lincoln, Nebraska 




Western Publishing and 

Engraving Company 

Lincoln Nebraska 

1920 



■Ml 



Copyright, 1920, by 
WESTERN PUBLISHING AND ENGRAVING COMPANY 



•JAN 1 2 iij20 



THE TORCH PRESS 

LINCOLN. NEBRASKA 

AND 
CEDAR RAPiDS, IOWA 



©Ci. A 5 14 -J 7^ 



DBDICATBD 

To the youth of Nebraska — the sons and 
daughters of the builders of an enduring com- 
monwealth — who are to be fitted by instruction 
and training, by culture and education, and by 
precept and example to perform the duties, to 
enjoy the blessings, and to bear the responsi- 
bilities of American life and citizenship. 



PREFACE 

It is the aim and office of this history of Nebraska to 
give a true and faithful account of that which has been in 
the past, to the end that the pioneers may not have Hved 
and toiled in vain, and that their children may understand 
and appreciate the heritage which belongs to this genera- 
tion. The pioneers laid the foundations of an enduring 
commonwealth by years of the most severe toil. As a re- 
sult of our study and added knowledge, we shall help to 
make Nebraska a better and a nobler state. This genera- 
tion has a great opportunity and with it a great responsi- 
bility. The history will enable us to interpret the great 
movements which have taken place in the social and eco- 
nomic and in the industrial and agricultural life of the 
people. The history attempts to record the development 
from the Indian trail to the Union Pacific railroad ; from the 
sand hill grass to alfalfa; from small and inferior Indian 
corn to the vast crops of to-day; from the settlement in the 
east to the occupation of the west; from the prohibition 
struggle of the territorial days to the passage of the pro- 
hibitory amendment in 1916; and the long struggle to free 
the state government from the railroads and other corpora- 
tions. 

The student who can see and interpret individual, com- 
munity, and state life in connection with the results which 
have come from the larger movements within the common- 
wealth will acquire a knowledge of men and society, of 
economic and industrial growth, and of institutions and 
development which will not soon be forgotten. 

The greatest care has been exercised in the selection of 
the illustrations. They are true to life and to the condi- 
tions of the times when they were taken by the photogra- 
phist. In offering this text-book to the youth and schools 



viii SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

of Nebraska it is in the hope that its study will create a 
greater love tor the state, a greater admiration for the pio- 
neers, and a greater desire to improve the Nebraska which 
these courageous men and devoted women made possible. 
We feel assured that a study of Nebraska's past will make 
better men and women of the boys and girls and as a re- 
sult make a better state in which to live. 

The editor and publishers are under lasting obligations to 
many who have shown interest in the publication and to 
many others who have rendered valuable assistance. The 
original abridgment of the Morton-Watkins History for 
this work was made by Dr. A. O. Thomas, of Maine, form- 
erly State School Superintendent of Nebraska. The com- 
pilation he made was gone over line by line and sentence by 
sentence before the material came into the hands of the 
editor. While the foundation remains the same — the Mor- 
ton-Watkins History of Nebraska — it was found neces- 
sary, in order to adapt it to young students and classes in 
school, to rewrite and rearrange nearly all the material se- 
lected. 

Thanks are due to the librarian of the State Historical 
Society — Mrs. Clarence S. Paine — for the use of valuable 
material which is in her care. The obligations of both edi- 
tor and publishers are acknowledged to many whose names 
we are not at liberty to record here, and especially to Pro- 
fessor C. N. Anderson of the State Normal School at 
Kearney for helpful suggestions, for reading parts of the 
manuscript, and for the Outline of Nebraska's Growth and 
Development. Grateful acknowledgment is made, also, to 
Professor Hutton Webster of the University of Nebraska 
who read the manuscript and by suggestive criticism added 
to the educational value of the book. 

J. A. B. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

INTRODUCTION xxi 

QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES. . .xxvi 

CHAPTER 1 1 

Nation Ai, Conditions — Early Opinion of Nebraska 
Erroneous — Topography and Geology — Altitude — 
Rainfall — Streams and Lakes — Water Power — 
Average Temperature — Killing Frost — Plant Life 
in Nebraska — Native Trees — Wild Flowers — 
Animal Life — Our Smaller Animals. 

CHAPTER 11 18 

The Indians — Indian Tribes and Their Distribu- 
tion — Indian Homes — Indian Warfare — Indian 
Lands Ceded to the United States — Some Famous 
Indian Chieftains — Coronado's Expedition — The 
Mallett Brothers. 

CHAPTER III 33 

The Expedition of Lewis and Clark — VlEwing the 
Border — The Camp at Council Bluffs — White 
Traders Precede Lewis and Clark — The Return 
Trip — Crooks and McLellan — Zebulon M. Pike — 
Route of the Expedition — A Rival Spanish Expedi- 
tion—The Astoria Expedition — Astorians Take 
AN Unknown Route — The Wanderings of Robert 
Stuart — IMajor Long's Expedition — The First 
Steamboat on the Missouri River — The Yellow- 
stone Expedition — A Newspaper Account of the 



X SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

First Steamboat to Ascend the Missouri River — 
Manuee de Lisa — Lisa's Expeditions — Lisa's Last 
Sojourn in Nebraska — Milton Sublette — Captain 
Benjamin Louis Eulalia Bonneville — Fremont's 
First Expedition — Colonel Kearny's Expedition — 
Peter A. Sarpy — Peter J. DeSmet. 

CHAPTER IV 55 

Early Indian Travel — The Santa Fe Trail — The 
Oregon Trail — Starting Point of the Oregon Trail 

— The First Route to the Columbia — Itinerary of 
THE Trail — The Course of the Trail — Numbers of 
THE Emigrants — Ash Hollow — Court House Rock 

— Chimney Rock — Scotts Bluff — Travel on the 
Oregon Trail — Interesting Notes on the Oregon 
Trail — The Mormons and Their Trail Through 
Nebraska — The Overland Mail — Russell, Majors, 
AND Waddell — Through Mail to the Pacific — Re- 
turned Use of the Northern Route — Benjamin 
HoLLADAY — The Pony Express — Operation of the 
Pony Express — Hazards of the Trip — Route of 
William F. Cody — The Pony Express a Financial 
Loss — The First Telegraph Company. 

CHAPTER V 17 

The Missouri River Traffic — Keel Boats — Mack- 
inaw Boats — The Cargoes — Captain Joseph La 
Barge — Volume of River Traffic — Idea of Navigat- 
ing THE Platte — The Steam Wagon — Territorial 
Roads — Building of the Union Pacific Railroad — 
Asa Whitney's Proposition to Build a Pacific Rail- 
road — Project Approved by the Congressional Com- 
mittee — The Act of 1862 — Organization of the 
Company — The Terms Changed by Act of 1864 — 



TABLE OF CONTENTS xi 

The: Act of 1866 — The Platte Valley Route — 
Breaking Ground — Progress of the Road — The 
Burlington and Missouri River Railroad — The 
Chicago and Northwestern Railroad — Other Rail- 
roads — The Cattle Trail — Cattle Towns — Devel- 
opment OF THE Ranch. 

CHAPTER VI 100 

Extent of Louisiana — Conditions Leading to the 
Purchase — Extent of the Purchase — The Popula- 
tion AT THE Time of the Purchase — Napoleon Asks 
FOR Protection of Inhabitants — Some Results of 
the Purchase — The First Nebraska — Government 
OF THE Unorganized Territory — Organizing Ne- 
braska Territory — Indian Rights in Nebraska — 
The Slavery Question — States Admitted Before 
Nebraska — Slavery, Missouri Compromise^ Kansas- 
Nebraska Bill — Territorial Government. 

CHAPTER VII 109 

The Coming of the People — The Government — 
The First Nebraska Officers — Early Locations — 
A New Town, Omaha — Early Towns — Arrival of 
THE Territorial Officials — Governors During the 
Territorial Period — Thomas B. Cuming — The 
First Counties — The First Census — Legislative 
Districts and Apportionment — The First Thanks- 
giving. 

CHAPTER VIII 123 

Calling of the First Legislature — The First Elec- 
tion — The First Capitol Building — Territorial 
Legislatures — ■ The First Legislature — Governor 
Cuming's Message — The Second Governor — Gov- 
ernor Izard's Arrival — Locating of the Capital — 



xii SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

The Laws of the; First Session — Provision for Sec- 
ond Census — Prohibition in Nebraska — Property 
Exemptions and Interest Rates — Establishing a 
Common School System — Territorial Roads — 
Claims and Claim Clubs — First Farms. 

CHAPTER IX 134 

United States Surveys — The First Courts — The 
Second Census — Election of 1855 — "Wild Cat" 
Banks — Territorial Finances — The Second Legis- 
lature — County Lines — School Report — The 
Youthful Commonwealth — Third Legislature — 
The Capital Controversy — More Bank Charters — 
Repeal of the Criminal Code — Izard, Cuming, and 
Richardson — The Fourth Legislative Session — 
Coming of Governor Richardson — A Better FeiSling. 

CHAPTER X 148 

Death of Acting Governor Cuming — First Political 
Conventions — Postponement of Public Land Sales 

— Need of More and Better Laws — The Fifth or 
Special Legislature — Resignation of Governor 
Richardson — Appointment of Governor Black — 
Public Land Sales — Proposed Annexation to Kan- 
sas — First Democratic Delegate Convention — 
First Republican Delegate Convention — The Elec- 
tion — The Sixth Legislature — The Governor's 
Message — Enactments of the Sixth Legislature. 

CHAPTER XI 159 

The First Statehood Election — The Congressional 
Campaign of 1860 — The Morton-Daily Contest — 
Departure of Governor Black — Legislative Sessions 

— Free Homestead Law — Three Important Ques- 
tions — Civil War Incidents — The Enabling Act — 



TABLE OF CONTENTS xiii 

Union Pacific Railroad — 'Election of First Statf 
Officers — Interesting Topics of Territorial Period 
— • The Advance Guards of Civilization — First Mili- 
tary Post — Early Expedition Against the Arikaras 

— Inter-tribal Warfare — Early Treaties — Posts to 
Protect Friendly Indians — The Second Military 
Post in Nebraska Territory — The Grattan Mas- 
sacre. 

CHAPTER XII 174 

Avenging the Grattan Massacre — The Battle 
Creek Campaign — The Sioux Uprising — Indian 
Hostilities During the Civil War — Protection 
Against the Indians — The First Regular Military 
Organization — Nebraska in the Civil War — Mis- 
sionaries AND Churches — The First Sermon — 

— Samuel Allis — Father Pierre J. DeSmet — The 
Presbyterians — Churches Established — Territor- 
ial Products — Nature's Products — Gold in Ne- 
braska Territory — Salt in Nebraska — Coal — A 
Prosperous Year — The Territorial Fair — Orchards 

— The Territorial Press — Other Papers. 

CHAPTER XIII 186 

Beginning of the State Government — Removal of 
THE Capital — Founding State Institutions — Es- 
tablishing Lincoln — Political Campaign of 1868 — 
First Legislative Session at Lincoln — Election of 
United States Senators — Subsidies to Railroads — 
The University of Nebraska — Report of the Com- 
missioners OF Public Lands — Scandals in State 
Government — Butler's Third Nomination — 
Butler's Third Election — Industrial Conditions 

— Various Kinds of Houses — Immigration — State 
Finances — Some Static Institutions — Encouraging 



xiv SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

Immigration — Electing a Unitkd States Senator 
IN 1871 — The First Arbor Day — Impeachment oe 
Governor Butler — Impeachment of Auditor Gil- 
LispiE — The Burning of the Asylum — Constitu- 
tion OF 1871. 

CHAPTER XIV 200 

Campaign of 1872 — Inaugural Address of Governor 
Furnas — Agitation for Capital Removal — Prohi- 
bition — Indian Troubles — Farming in 1873 — 
Farmers' Organizations — Political Convention of 
1874 — Capital Removal Again — Constitutional 
Convention — Organizing the Convention ' — 
Convention Procedure — The Constitution Rati- 
fied BY THE People — Constitutional Amendments 

— Grov^th in Population — Growth of the Schools 

— The Grasshopper Plague — Indian Troubles — 
Temperance Movement — Foreign Immigration — 
Improvements — Message of the Retiring Governor 

— Enactments of the Eighth Legislature ^ — Enact- 
ments OF THE Ninth Legislature — The Slocum Law 

— The Railway Strike of 1882 — The Farmer's 
Alliance. 

CHAPTER XV 215 

Western Settlements — The Cattlemen — Woman 
Suffrage — Telephones — Anti-Prohibition Con- 
vention — The Political Situation — Convict Labor 

— Re-election of Governor Nance — The Campaign 
OF 1882 — Political Unrest — The Campaign of 1884 

— Railway Commission Established — State Insti- 
tutions Established — Arbor Day — Law Affecting 
Railroad Charges Passed — Important Acts of the 
Legislature of 1887 — The Political Trend of 1888 



TABLE OF CONTENTS xv 

— The Populists — The: People's Independent Con- 
vention OF 1890 — The Campaign oe 1890 — The De- 
feat OF THE Prohibition Amendment — Canvass of 
THE Vote — Indian Ghost Dance Troubles — The 
Beginning of Trouble — The Death of Sitting Bull 

— The Battle of Wounded Knee — The Finding of 
Zintkala Nuni (Lost Little Bird) — Beet Sugar In- 
dustry — Alfalfa. 

CHAPTER XVI 234 

The Message of Governor Boyd — Important Acts of 
THE Legislature of 1891 — The Boyd Contest — The 
Rise of William Jennings Bryan — Politics of 1892 

— Industrial Conditions and Drought — Further 
Reform Movement — World's Columbian Exposition, 
Chicago — Allen Elected United States Senator — 
Politics of 1894 — Bryan-Thurston Campaign — 
Length of Term — Shortage of State Funds — State 
Flower and Name — The Campaign of 1896 — The 
Legislature of 1897 — Creameries and Cream Sepa- 
rators — Sale of the Union Pacific — Nebraska in 
THE Spanish-American War — The Trans-Missis- 
sippi AND International Exposition — The Election 
OF 1898. 

CHAPTER XVII 249 

The Legislature of 1899 — The Election of 1900 — 
Legislature of 1901 — Governor Savage — Election 
OF 1902 — A Political Awakening — The Republican 
Convention of 1904 — Kinkaid Homesteads — An 
Elective Railway Commission — Prices of Land, 
Irrigation, Dry Farming — A Ten-Years' Struggle 

— NoRRis Brown Elected United States Senator — 
The Legislature in a New Role — The Campaign of 



xvi SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

1908 — LiCGiSLATioN OF 1909 — Eight o'clock Ci^osing 
Law — Politics of 1910 — County Option — Laws of 
THE Session of 1911 — Amendments to the Constitu- 
tion — Campaign of 1914 — Campaign of 1916 — Leg- 
islature OF 1917 — Making a "Bone-dry" Law — Ad- 
ministration OF Keith Neville — Administration of 
S. R. McKelvie — Progress in Nebraska. 

CHAPTER XVni 266 

Semi-Centennial Celebration — Committee Ap- 
pointed — Plans of Celebration — The Lincoln Cel- 
ebration — Statewide Celebrations — The Haskell 
Ode Contest. 

THE WORLD WAR 272 

HISTORICAL OUTLINE 287 

JOHN LEE WEBSTER 292 

INDEX 293 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

J. Sterling Morton as a Young Man Front 

An Early "Dug Out" 2 

Modern Farm Home 3 

Deadwood Stage 4 

Map Showing Rivers oe Nebraska 6 

Scene in Nebraska Sand Hills Today 7 

Cement Mill at Superior 8 

Falls on the Snake River 10 

A Typical Nebraska Lake 12 

The Islands, Platte River 13 

Buffalo Bull and Calves 16 

In Western Nebraska in 1876 17 

Map Showing Location of Indian Tribes 19 

Indian House Architecture xA.mong the Plains 

Tribes 22 

Marpiya Luta (Red Cloud) 25 

Sentegaleska (Spotted Tail) 26 

Pit-a-le-Shar-u (Man Chief) 27 

Logan Fontenelle 29 

Map of Missouri River Basin 31 

Lewis and Clark 34 

Lewis and Clark Monument 36 

Pierre Choteau, Jr 38 

Early Missouri River Steamboat 43 

Manuel de Lisa 45 

Benjamin Louis Eulalia Bonneville 48 

John C. Fremont 50 



xviii SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

Peter A. Sarpy 51 

Ni-co-Mi (Voice of the Waters) 52 

Peter J. DeSmet, S. J 53 

Map of Oregon Trail 57 

Scenes at Ash Hollow 59 

Court House Rock 61 

Chimney Rock 63 

Scotts Bluff and Vicinity. 65 

Ill-Fated Hand Cart Expedition Leaving Florence 

in 1856 69 

One Type of Famous Concord Stage Coach 72 

First U. P. Railroad Bridge Across Missouri River 

AT Omaha, 78 

Map of Nebraska Territory, 1854 80 

Skirmish with Indians while Building U. P. 

Railroad 84 

Building the U. P. Railroad in Nebraska 86 

Thomas C. Durant 87 

Grenville M. Dodge 89 

Famous Lincoln Car 91 

Engine No. 1, U. P. Railroad 94 

U. P. Overland Limited, Showing Double Track. . . 95 

Map of Louisiana Purchase, 1803 102 

Pony Express and Overland Mail Station, Fort 

Kearny, Nebraska 106 

Fort Laramie in 1836 110 

Site of Fort Kearny 112 

Francis Burt, First Governor of Nebraska Ter- 
ritory 114 

Map Showing Original Eight Counties of Ne- 
braska 119 

First Territorial Capital Building at Omaha 125 

Old Conestoga Freighter 127 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xix 

First Claim Cabin in Nebraska 131 

Map Showing U. S. Land Surveys. 135 

Belekvue, Nebraska, 1856 137 

Ferry Across the Elkhorn River 140 

Old Trading Post, Bellevue, in 1854 145 

Bad Lands 149 

Four of the Nine Survivors oe La Fleche's Police 

Force 155 

Pine Ridge 161 

William Walker at age 33 164 

Gen. Henry Leavenworth 168 

Pawnee Earth Lodge- Village, Genoa, 1875 ' 170 

National Cemetery at Old Fort McPherson 174 

Hadley D. Johnson^ 178 

Nebraska Orchard 181 

Col. Robert W. Furnas and Staff 184 

Block House at Old Fort Kearny 188 

Winnebago Grave Yard 190 

Overland Mail on the "Old Trails" Route 193 

Robert W. Furnas 201 

In Western Nebraska in 1876 205 

Grasshopper Scene, 1874 206 

Pawnee Village Site 211 

Si-Ri-Lai-Shar-Roon-u (They Make Him Chief) . . 216 

Scene in Morton Park, Nebraska City 219 

Monument to J. Sterling Morton 219 

Home of J. Sterling Morton 221 

Group of Omaha Indians 229 

Stacking Alfalfa Near Kearney 232 

Falls of the North Loup River 235 

Toadstool Park, Sioux County Bad Lands 237 

Is-Sai-Lu-Rai-Kar-Ik-U (Dwell in Sight) 241 

ScHLEGEL Rapids and Falls 243 



XX SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

Fire Chief of the Omaha Tribe 247 

Omaha Agency View 251 

Santee Agency School Building 257 

Nebraska's Strategic Commercial Position 263 

John L. Webster 267 



INTRODUCTION 

General Statement. — Nebraska has developed within 
the memory of some of her citizens from an unsettled 
prairie to a desirable place in which to live. The census 
of 1910 reported the population to be 1,192,214. The cen- 
sus to be taken in 1920 will, no doubt, find a population of 
more than 1,750,000. Many of the conveniences df life 
have come to the state within the last twenty years. Among 
the most signal and valuable are the farm telephone, the 
automobile, the cream separator, the improved farming 
implements, rural mail delivery, daily papers, good roads, 
and more and better schools. During this period of 
twenty years women's clubs have come into great promi- 
nence in Nebraska. To the intelligence and activity of 
the women we are largely indebted for better schools, for 
better living conditions, and for the increased number of 
public libraries. 

Nebraska now has ninety-three organized counties, 
many growing towns and several prosperous cities. 
Eighty-eight of the counties enjoy railway facilities within 
their borders. Almost every town has its schools, banks, 
stores, shops, telephones, lumber yards, public libraries, 
churches, and good homes. 

Practically all the land in Nebraska is owned by intel- 
ligent and experienced farmers, who bring to their aid 
much scientific knowledge. Many of the best farmers 
take advantage of the suggestions and information con- 
tained in the bulletins which are sent out from the agri- 
cultural college, from the agricultural schools, and from the 



xxii SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

experimental stations. Add to this the influence of the 
best agricultural and industrial productions which the State 
Board of Agriculture places, year by year, before the eyes 
of all, and we have, in part, the explanation of Nebraska's 
progress. When we include the life and teaching, the 
devotion and influence of the churches, the schools, and the 
institutions of higher education, we have named the phys- 
ical, the intellectual, the moral, and the spiritual forces 
which have caused the desert to blossom, the plains to be 
carpeted with grass, and the valleys to be covered with 
com. 

Early Inhabitants and Their, Homes. — Before the 
white man came to Nebraska and before the Indians, known 
to us, were here, another people occupied the plains. AH 
our knowledge of them is gained from the excavations 
of their homes and, graves. These people were mostly in 
Eastern Nebraska, along the Missouri River, where water, 
wood, fish, and fruit could be had. They had no horses and 
possessed only crude weapons and farm implements. They 
depended for the most part on the productions of nature. 

They usually built their homes of earth and on the tops 
of the hills. The hilltops gave them protection and af- 
forded a view of an approaching enemy. Their houses had 
pits dug in the floor about four feet deep. In these pits 
they hid whatever they considered of value. In the middle 
of the earthen floor were fire-pits which were used for 
heating and cooking purposes. 

Their Tools and Implements. — Excavations on the 
sites of these homes reveal many objects including arrows, 
knives, axes, hammers, and spear heads. All these were 
made of stone. The natives had instruments for sewing 
clothing, boring holes, and doing finer work of various 
kinds. These instnmients were made of bone. The ex- 



INTRODUCTION xxiii 

cavations have also uncovered articles of pottery in red, 
black, and yellow colors. The articles of pottery were 
made of clay, then colored and afterward hardened by 
burning-. 

Their Religion — Further Excavations. — We know, 
also, from their mode of burial, that they believed in a 
spirit world and in a future life. Excavations are being 
made at the present time by Robert F. Gilder of Omaha. 
As a result of his work we may know more, at no distant 
day, of these early inhabitants of Nebraska. 

Modern Nebraska. — Definite knowledge of Nebraska 
began with the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. Before that 
date white traders and explorers had entered the Ne- 
braska country and a little knowledge of the land had 
been gained. 

In Six Sections. — To understand the development of 
Nebraska and as an aid to the memory it is best to con- 
sider its history in six sections. Into this number the his- 
tory naturally and easily separates itself. 

First Section. — The first section covers the natural 
features and conditions ; the land, streams, minerals, na- 
tive timber, wild fruit and flowers, grasses, and animals. 
These conditions ought to be carefully studied, not simply 
to gain information of the things mentioned, but also to 
learn how they have been adapted to the use of man and 
how they have modified the course of the white man's life. 
In this section we learn of Nebraska as the physical foun- 
dation of the present and the futvire civilization. 

Second Section. — The second section considers the 
coming of the white man to Nebraska. It treats, also, of 
the knowledge gained of the Indian people who were in pos- 
session of the country. This section takes up the discov- 
eries, explorations, and expeditions. It covers in time the 



xxiv SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

period from about 1800 to 1835 or 1840 when the Oregon 
Trail began to be well traveled. 

Third Section. — The third section gives the history of 
the Oregon Trail, the Mormon Trail, the stage coaches, 
the overland mail, the pony express, the telegraph lines, 
and the extension of the railways. The period covered 
extends from about 1830 to the end of the territorial or- 
ganization and the beginning of statehood in 1867.^ 

Fourth Section — Two Parts. — The fourth section 
treats of the Louisiana Purchase and the organization of 
Nebraska Territory. It deals with the civil government 
of Nebraska from the time of the Louisiana Purchase in 
1803 to the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill in 1854. 

Fifth Section. — The political history of Nebraska be- 
gins with the fifth section. It covers a period of time fiom 
the organization of the Territory in 1854 to the beginning 
of statehood March first, 1867. 

Sixth Section — Two Parts. — The sixth section 
covers fifty years. The period extends from the admiss- 
ion of Nebraska into the sisterhood of states, March 1, 
1867, to March 1, 1917. The section marks the beginning 
of the World War and the entrance of the United States 
on the side of freedom, democracy, and righteousness. 
The period naturally divides itself into two parts: (1) 
From 1867 to the Populist Revolution in 1890; and (2) 
from 1890 to March 1, 1917. The section is concluded 
with a short account of the semi-centennial celebration and 
a few pages relating to the World War. 

In the light of the scope and character of the work as 
indicated by the foregoing general statement it remains to 
point out some of the results which ought to be secured: 

1 The Union Pacific railroad was begun in 1863, but was not 
completed until 1869. 



INTRODUCTION xxv 

1. Thoughtful people agree that history is the one sub- 
ject which enriches the life, and above all others found in 
the course of study, inspires hope and confidence in the 
future. This is true of community and state history, in 
a marked degree, because it is concrete. Many of the 
events have taken place within the limits of personal know- 
ledge, and are on that account of double the value. History 
cultivates intelligence, awakens interest, challenges atten- 
tion, provokes thought, calls for discrimination, creates a 
desire for knowledge, inspires action, and feeds the love of 
accomplishment. 

2. Thus history ties into one bundle yesterday, today, 
and tomorrow. This causes the lessons which come out 
of the past to be appropriated, life, in the present, to be more 
useful, and the forecast of the future to be more accurate. 

It is in anticipation of these results in life and character 
that this text is sent out to the teachers and schools of 
Nebraska. 



QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES 

The Questions, Problems, and Exercises are to be used 
during the year as the teacher may direct. They are of 
four classes: (1) Questions which relate to Indian life, 
methods, customs, and character; (2) Exercises based on 
the facts, and are intended to be, in the most practical way, 
a guide in the every-day use of English and in one phase of 
composition; (3) Problems and studies which will create 
interest in Nebraska life and history and will add mater- 
ially to the information in the text; and (4) Questions 
suggested by statements in the text, by the progress of the 
people, by the conditions which existed at different periods, 
and by the lessons which the history teaches. Those in 
Number 4 should be taken up at the time the text brings 
them out or in a short time after it has been studied. 

The questions, problems, and exercises in each set are 
numbered for ready reference. They can be taken up in 
any order and at such time as the teacher finds best adapted 
to the needs and progress of the class. 

Find out from your father, or mother, or grandparents, 
or neighbors, or some book, or the State Historical Society, 
Lincoln, Nebraska, the answers to the following questions 
relating to the Indians who occupied the plains of Ne- 
braska when the white man came : 

1. How did Indian agriculture differ from the agricul- 
ture with which we are acquainted? 

2. What kind of grain did the Indians raise which we 
cultivate ? 



QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES xxvii 

3. Did the Indians raise any grain which we do not 
cultivate ? 

4. What part did Indian women take in the cultivation 
of the soil? 

5. To what kind of work did Indian men devote their 
time? 

6. What farm tools did the Indians have? 

7. How did the Indians harvest the grain they raised? 

8. What vegetables did the Indians cultivate? 

9. How did the Indians prepare their food? Did they 
bake bread? Did they boil meat? Did they boil potatoes? 

10. Did the Indians have more than one variety of 
corn ? 

11. Where and in what kind of soil did the wild rice 
used by the Indians grow? 

12. Did the Indians have and use sugar? If so, where 
and how did they get it? 

13. Did the Indians use salt ? If so, how did they get it ? 

14. What kinds of berries were gathered and used by the 
Indians ? 

15. Did the Indians prepare any berries for use in 
winter? If so, how did they prepare them? 

16. Did the Indians know about squashes, pumpkins, 
and watermelons? If so, did they use them? 

17. Did the Indians have any domestic animals before 
the coming of the white man? 

18. How did the Indians obtain the meat they used? 
How did they cure and keep the meat? How many kinds 
of meat did they have? 

19. Did the Indians have poultry? Did they use eggs? 

20. Did the Indians plant and cultivate gardens? 

21. How far did the Irfdians have to go sometimes to get 
the different kinds of food on which they lived? 



xxviii SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

22. How did the Indians protect themselves from the 
heat of summer and the cold and storms of winter? 

23. Did the Indians build villages? If so, what were 
they like? Were they permanent? 

24. Can you learn what is taught in the Indian school 
at Genoa, Nebraska? 

25. Who furnishes the money with which the school at 
Genoa is supported? How many pupils are enrolled this 
year? Do they have a high school course of study? 

26. Could we live in the same way the Indians lived? 

27. When we compare the food on our tables with the 
food on which the Indians lived what lessons do we learn? 

28. Did the Indians use hot water? If so, how did 
they heat it? 

29. In what way did the Indian young people come to 
know the traditions of their tribe? 

30. Why was the place now known as Lincoln called 
by the Indians the "Salt City"? 

3L It is said the Indians subsisted on the natural re- 
sources of the region where they lived? Do we do that? 

32. How many different kinds of material did the In- 
dians use in making clothing? 

33. What was the worship of the Indians before the 
coming of the missionaries? 

34. Had the Indians of Nebraska developed a written 
language. If so, what kind of characters did they use? 

35. Did the Indians have figures, numbers, and letters? 

36. Could the Indians count as high as 1,000? 

37. Did the Indians have machinery of any kind? If 
so, what kind, and for what was it used? 

38. Did the Indians have any instruments with which 
to weigh, and did they have any units of dry or liquid 
measure ? 



QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES xxix 

39. Did they measure land and distances? If so, how? 

40. Who was probably the greatest and most intelligent 
Indian chief who lived within what is now Nebraska? 

41. What places can you give which were named in 
honor of some Indian chief? 

42. What places can. you give which were named in 
honor of Indian tribes? 

43. What methods did the Indians employ to determine 
the time of day? 

44. Did the Indians count time by years, and did they 
know the ages of the members of their tribe? 

45. What are some of the most prominent traits of char- 
acter of the Indian people? 

As a practical method of correlating English Grammar 
and Composition with the history of Nebraska, appoint one 
or more of the pupils, from time to time, to write letters to 
certain persons in schools for information in relation to 
suggested subjects and others which the teachers may 
name. That the efforts and exercises may be of the great- 
est value to the writers of the letters and to the other 
members of the class the following suggestions are offered : 
(1) Let the writer keep a copy of his letter; (2) let the 
letter and the reply be read to the class; (3) let the mem- 
bers of the class have free and full opportunity to ask 
questions and to discuss the letter and the reply; (4) let 
careful consideration be given to the form, tone, style, 
spirit, and penmanship of the letters; (5) let the language 
be carefully examined to see if it is clear, simple, direct, 
natural, and specific; (6) let attention be called to the 
spelling, the punctuation, and capitalization ; and (7) let 
the words, phrases, and sentences be examined in the light 
of intelligent usage. Great care should be taken to culti- 
vate good taste, good business forms, and a pleasing style. 



XXX SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

1. Ask a pupil to write a pupil in the same grade in 
Weeping Water to learn how it came to be named Weep- 
ing Water; another to Plattsmouth to learn how it came 
to be named Plattsmouth; and another pupil to write to 
Ohiowa to learn how it came to be called Ohiowa. 

2. Write two pupils in the schools of Emerson to 
learn if the Emerson School District is all in Thurston 
County, or in Dixon County, or in Dakota County. If not 
all in any one of the three how is it situated so far as the 
counties are concerned? 

3. Appoint a pupil to write to a pupil in Central City 
asking why the term ''Central" is a part .of the name; an- 
other to Hayes Center ; another to Beaver City ; another to 
Beaver Crossing; and another to Clay Center. In each 
case let the questions relate to the name and to the two 
words which make up the name. 

4. Request four pupils to write four pupils in differ- 
ent parts of Sioux County asking for a description of the 
"Little Bad Lands." 

5. Ask a tenth grade pupil to write a tenth grade pupil 
in Bayard relating to "Chimney Rock," asking (a) why it is 
so called; (b) its size and appearance; (c) its direction and 
distance from Bayard; and (d) how many miles can it be 
seen ? 

6. Appoint three students — one in the 8th, one in 
the 9th, and one in the 10th grade — to write to those in 
corresponding grades in Rulo and ask them about the mon- 
ument in the corner of the state ; (a) how far it is from 
Rulo; (b) of what material it is made; (c) how high it is; 
(d) what is its shape; (e) by whom was it put up; and 
(f) what is the inscription? 

7. Detail a boy and a girl in each of the three grades — 
8th, 9th, and 10th — to write pupils in the corresponding 



QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES xxxi 

grades in the Nebraska City schools concerning the *'Steam 
Wagon.'' Let such questions as the following be asked: 

(a) what was the "Steam Wagon"; (b) who invented it; 
(c) where was it built and by whom; (d) for what purpose 
was it built; (e) how far out of Nebraska City did it go; 
(f) with what was the wagon loaded; (g) for what place 
did it start; (h) why was the steam wagon abandoned; and 
(j) where is it now? 

8. Have some boy to write a boy in Nebraska City and 
ask him about the stone pillar which was placed in 1914 
near the Burlington railway station ; (a) who placed it there ; 

(b) why was it placed there; (c) what is the inscription on 
the stone; and (d) what does it commemorate? 

9. Appoint two pupils to write to two in the correspond- 
ing grades in McGrew and two to write to Melbeta asking 
about a large "sand blow-out" which is situated between 
the two towns. Let the teacher suggest the questions it 
will be proper to ask, or let the pupils frame their own 
questions. 

10. Suggest to two pupils that they write to two of the 
same grade in Central City to learn about the "Lone Tree 
Monument." Let the pupils frame their own questions or 
have them use the following : (a) what does the monument 
commemorate; (b) where is it placed; (c) what is its ap- 
pearance; (d) what is the inscription; (e) when was it 
erected; (f) by whom was it put there? 

1 1 . Let a pupil write someone in the schools in Nebraska 
City about the monument on the public square and another 
pupil write to learn about the monument in Morton Park. 
Let the pupils under the guidance of the teacher suggest 
the questions which they desire to ask. 

12. Appoint pupils to write pupils of their own grade 
in the schools of Lincoln and ask about the monument in 
inemory of Abraham Lincoln. 



xxxii SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

13. Suggest to pupils that they write to pupils in Bridge- 
port to learn about "Court House Rock" and "Jail Rock." 

14. Ask two pupils to write to Bellevue and suggest the 
use of such questions as: (a) where is the monument in 
Bellevue placed; (b) what does it commemorate; (c) when 
and by whom was it erected; (d) of what material was it 
made; and (e) what is the inscription on it? 

15. The pupils who are^old enough to appreciate may be 
asked to write the teacher a letter about some store, or in- 
dustry, or manufacturing plant of which they may have 
personal knowledge. Let the letters cover the following 
outHne; how was it started; how has it been developed; 
what means have been employed to develop it ; the method 
of putting the product on the market ; the distance the pro- 
duct has to be shipped; to whom is the product sent; the 
names of the people who started the enterprise; the men 
who have done most to develop it; the difficulties en- 
countered; and the advantages to the community. 

1. What can you learn about the life, rank, activities, 
and character of John C. Fremont, who led in 1842 an ex- 
ploring expedition across what is nqw the state of Nebraska? 

2. If all the counties in the state were the same size and 
each county contained as many square miles as there are 
in the county in which you live — assuming that the area of 
Nebraska is 76,510 square miles — how many counties 
would there be in -Nebraska? 

3. What reason, or reasons, can you give for calling the 
northwest part of Nebraska, with the adjoining portions of 
South Dakota and Wyoming, "The Wonderland of Amer- 
ica"? 

4. In whose honor was the county in which you live 
named ? 



QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES xxxiii 

5. Do you know of any books which have been written 
by men or women who Hve in Nebraska? If so, what are 
the titles of the books and who are their authors? 

6. Who was President of the United States when Ne- 
braska was organized into a territory in 1854? 

7. Who was President of the United States when Ne- 
braska became a state, March 1, 1867? 

8. W^ho was President of the United States when Ne- 
braska became fifty years old as a state March 1, 1917? 

9. Who raised the largest number of bushels of corn 
per acre within a circle whose center is your home and the 
radius five miles? 

10. Who raised the largest crop of wheat per acre, this 
year, in your school district? 

11. What different newspapers, issued in Nebraska, can 
you name and tell where they are published? 

12. What newspapers and magazines do you have the 
opportunity to read? 

13. Does the Oregon Trail pass over any part of the 
county in which you live? If so, where in the county? 

14. Have you seen any of the monuments which mark 
the Oregon Trail? If so, where and of what material are 
they made? 

15. By whose authority has the Oregon Trail been 
marked? What inscription is on each monument? 

16. How far is it, measured on a straight line, from the 
northwest corner of the state to the pillar near Rulo? Can 
you determine the distance on a map on which the scale is 
given ? 

17. What counties in Nebraska do not, at this date, 
have any railway mileage? 

18. What two counties have the largest number of 
miles of railway? 



xxxiv SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

19. How many miles of railroad are there' in the state? 

20. Which is the largest and which the smallest county 
in the state? 

21. In honor of whom was the smallest county named? 

22. Who is the oldest man and who is the oldest woman 
within a radius of five miles of your home? 

23. When was the school house in your district built? 
What did it cost? By whom was it erected? 

24. Solve the problem : How many states of the size 
of Rhode Island could be made out of Cherry County? 

25. How many counties of the size of Cherry County 
could be made out of Nebraska, assuming the area of the 
state to be 76,510 square miles? 

26. If each county in the state of Ohio were the size of 
Cherry County, how many counties would Ohio have instead 
of the 8^ she has now? 

27. If all the counties in Nebraska were the size of 
Adams County, how many counties would we have? 

28. What counties in Nebraska were named in honor of 
men who have been Presidents of the United States? How 
many? 

29. What counties in Nebraska were named in honor of 
men who were generals in the Civil War? How many? 

30. What counties in the state were named in honor 
of men who have been governors of Nebraska? How 
many ? 

31. When does the legislature meet and what is the pay 
of each member? 

32. How many members are there in the House and 
how many in the Senate? 

33. How many of those who have been governors of 
Nebraska are living? Do you know any of them? 

34. What was the amount of the irreducible school fund 



QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES xxxv 

at the close of the last year? (The State Superintendent 
or the State Auditor can give you the exact amount.) 

35. Name the members of Congress from this state and 
give the home post office of each. 

36. Name the United States Senators from Nebraska 
and give the home town of each. 

37. How many members are there in the Supreme 
Court of Nebraska? How many of them can you name? 

38. Ask each member of the class to report on the life, 
work, and character of a former governor, giving special 
attention to his qualities as a man and as a citizen. 

39. Name one of the former governors and let each mem- 
ber of the class the next day report some of the irtiportant 
events in his administration. 

40. If the area of Nebraska is 76,510 square miles and 
the area of Sarpy County is 225 square miles, how many 
counties would we have if all were the size of Sarpy 
County ? 

41. Make a list of the railways of the state. How many 
do you find? 

42. Find from the ticket agent about how many pounds 
of butter and how many dozens of eggs were shipped from 
your railway station last year. 

43. Find from the grain elevator how many bushels of 
corn and of wheat were sent from your town last year. 

44. Let each member of the class make a list of the 
towns and cities in Nebraska in which he or she has been. 
After the members have compared their lists let each pupil 
express his choice of the one in which he would like to 
live, and give the reason. 

45. Name the four normal schools, the town in which 
each is situated, and give the name of the president of each 
school. 



«xxvi SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

46. Make a list of the colleges and universities in the 
state and tell the town in which each is situated, and also 
give the church or religious body by which each is con- 
ducted. 

47. Where are the two state agricultural schools and 
what can you tell about their work? 

48. Where are the state experimental farms and sta- 
tions ? 

49. Who is the state senator and who is the state rep- 
resentative from your district? Do you know them per- 
sonally ? 

50. What is meant when it is said the legislature passed 
a joint i^esolution? 

51. Who is lieutenant-governor o^ Nebraska? What 
are some of his duties? 

52. Have you been in the state house? How much 
did the legislature appropriate to build a new state house? 

53. Who is the state school superintendent? What 
are some of his duties? 

54. How many children of school age are there in 
your county ? 

55. What is the largest city in which you have been? 
What are some of the things you saw while in that city? 

56. What is the most wonderful machine you have seen ? 
What use is made of it? 

57. Whom do you consider the foremost citizen of Ne- 
braska ? Why ? 

58. Whom do you consider the foremost citizen in your 
county ? Why ? 

59. How many of the institutions of Nebraska are under 
the management of the board of control? 

60. When you have completed the high school course 
where do you intend to go to school? Why do you select 
that institution of learning? 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 



CHAPTER I 

Natural Conditions. — The school geographies of only 
seventy-five years ago described the larger part of what is 
now Nebraska as an uninhabitable portion of the continent 
lying in the Great American Desert, unable to support a 
population and of small economic value. It was necessary 
for those who viewed the country to do so principally from 
the routes along the water courses. When they ventured 
beyond the valleys, they saw endless stretches of level lands 
covered with various grasses and seemingly devoid of water ; 
or they caught glimpses of long, low ranges of sand-topped 
hills. But the plains country held a peculiar wealth and 
charm not discerned by those who viewed it first; and the 
early settlers found the struggle sufficient to produce men- 
tal acumen and to stimulate their greatest efforts and high- 
est ambition. The sand-topped hills and the illimitable 
plains have become the pastures and gardens of the nation. 

Early Opinion of Nebraska Erroneous. — The early 
opinion of Nebraska was certainly not creditable to its 
natural resources. Washington Irving, though a delight- 
ful writer, loses prestige as a prophet when we read his 
statement: *'It is a land where no man permanently 
abides. . . . Such is the nature of this immense wil- 
derness of the west, which apparently defies cultivation and 
the habitation of civilized life." Cooper, the leading story 



2 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

teller of his day, observes in The Prairie that the plains are 
**in fact a vast country incapable of sustaining a dense popu- 
lation in the absence of the two great necessities" — wood 
and water. Long, in 1819, painted a most dismal picture 
of the future of Nebraska: 

The rapidity of the current [of the Platte] and the 
great width of the bed of the river preclude the possi- 
bility of any extensive inundation of the surrounding 




Photo by S. D. Butcher 

An Early "Dug Out" 

country. The bottom lands of the river rise by an im- 
perceptible ascent, on each side, extending laterally to a 
distance of from two to ten miles, where they are termi- 
nated by low ranges of gravelly hills, running parallel 
to the general direction of the river. Beyond these the 
surface is an undulating plain, having an elevation of 
from fifty to one hundred feet, and presenting the aspect 
of hopeless and irreclaimable sterility. 

But this great plain, which at first view appeared so 
useless, was only waiting for civilized man and his inventive 
genius, as exemplified in the steam railroad, when it was 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 3 

ready to furnish comfortable homes for thousands of people 
and to become the natural gateway to the west for millions 
more. Every student of Nebraska history marvels at the 
transformation of a seeming desert into the present state^ 
within the period of two generations. Valuable lessons 
are to be learned from the sacrifices and strenuous efforts of 
Nebraska pioneers in wresting from an apparently worthless 




Photo by S. D. Butcher 

Modern Farm Home 



country the beautiful homes and rich farms occupied by the 
present generation. 

Topography and Geology. — The surface of Nebraska 
is well illustrated in the accompanying map. The state is 
divided into three regions : The Loess, Sand Hills, and 
High Plains. These are subdivided according to topog- 
raphy into eight areas. The Loess region occupies the 
eastern part of the state. It is so named from the character 
of the soil, which is a fine loam deposited ages ago as set- 




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SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 5 

tlings from muddy water. This part of the state is quite 
rolling, in some places even hilly, and is watered by many 
small streams. The Loess region gradually approaches a 
plain, as can be seen by the map. About one-fourth of the 
way into Nebraska it develops into somewhat more sandy 
soil. This central part of the state, known as the Sand Hills 
region, has many rich localities where farming is carried 
on very profitably, while the more sandy sections are given 
to combined farming and stock raising, by using the native 
grasses for grazing and hay. The surface is level and 
slightly rolling, and small streams are not so numerous as 
in the eastern portion. 

The High Plains region is composed mostly of a sandy 
soil, often traversed by deep canyons showing, in the north- 
west part of the state, considerable rock croppings. I'he 
roughest part of this section, known as the Pine Ridge, 
is dotted with groups of pine trees. While profitable farm- 
ing is carried on to some extent in this region, much of it 
is given over to stock raising by use of the native grasses. 
In Box Butte, Dawes, Sheridan, and other counties, potato 
raising is carried on extensively. It is in this district that 
the potash lakes have recently (1917) been made to yield 
a large return of potash to their fortunate owners. Potash 
is the natural element of the soil for potato fertilizer. 

The soil of Nebraska is very deep, covering the rock 
formation to a depth of as much as one hundred feet under 
the Loess or alluvial deposit soil in the southeastern part of 
the state, and to a depth of three hundred feet and more in 
the Sand Hills district. 

Limestone is found along the streams in southeastern Ne- 
braska. From an economic point of view this is the most 
important geological formation in the state, since it yields 
the material for lime, rubble, rip-rap, building, smelting, 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 7 

sugar refining, and ballast, as well as enormous quantities 
of clay for brick, tile, and terra cotta. 

Cement is found in certain rock formations near Superior 
and may be discovered in other parts of Nebraska in paying 
quantities. Various cleansing powders, which have for 
their body a soft chalk rock, have been found in southern 
Nebraska. Putty is prepared from soft rock found in the 




Photo by S. D. Butcher 

Scene in Nebraska Sand Hii.i<s Today 



same district, mainly from Superior to Alma. This rock 
is sometimes found in its native state so soft and moist that 
it can be used for plaster, and many a homesteader's "soddy" 
has been plastered with it. There is a large amount of this 
chalk in Nebraska. , It can be traced from the Republican 
River to the Niobrara. 

The Sand Hills region, which covers the northwestern 
portion of the state, is derived from the disintegration of the 
older sands. In the early days when numberless herds of 
cattle roved over the country and when prairie fires were 
unchecked, the bare sands became shifting sand dunes; 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 9 

grass, underbrush, and trees were destroyed ; and the region 
presented the appearance of a desert, as it was supposed to 
be. But when venturesome pioneers, willing to battle with 
prairie fires, drifting sands, coyotes, and other enemies, be- 
gan to settle in the valleys, to keep down the conflagrations, 
and to overcome other difficulties, all this region became 
changed. Now some of the best ranches and some of the 
best hay land are found in the heart of the Sand Hills 
country. 

The latest soil deposit of the state is the alluvium of the 
streams, useful chiefly because of its great fertility, and 
because it furnishes material for making a fair grade of 
brick where good clays are wanting. 

Altitude. — The altitude varies from a general level of 
about one thousand feet along the Missouri River to over 
five thousand in the extreme west. The prairie lands of the 
eastern portion begin to merge into tables and lofty buttes 
about four hundred miles west of the Missouri River. This 
variation in altitude produces important differences in 
climate, vegetation, and human occupations. 

Rainfall. — The rainfall in the eastern portion is ap- 
proximately twenty-three inches a year and the evaporation ^ 
four feet, while the rainfall in the western portion may be 
as little as twelve to fifteen inches with an evaporation of 
six feet. The snowfall may reach twenty inches, which is 
equivalent to about two inches of rain. 

Streams and Lakes — Water Power. — The general 

slope of Nebraska is from west to east and is represented by 

a fall of over four thousand feet. The Republican, the 

Platte, and the Niobrara rivers traverse the greater part 

1 The amount of water that evaporates from a surface of water, 
as rivers, lakes, and ponds. Such, surfaces, if no water were added 
to them by rain and snow, would be lowered in Nebraska from four 
to six feet per annum by evaporation. 




Photo by S. D. Butcher 

V\ixs ON THE Snake River 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 11 

of the state. These are in turn fed by many smaller streams, 
the largest of which is the Loup River. There is unquestion- 
ably an immense amount of power now going to waste in the 
streams of Nebraska, as they neariy all have a considerable 
fall. Meanwhile we are paying fortunes for coal every year 
to run electric-lighting plants and machinery. There is much 
talk of developing large water power plants, but little has 
been done except in a limited way in isolated localities. A 
large opportunity awaits the right combination of capital, 
energy, and thought in this field. 

Water for irrigation purposes is taken from various 
streams and in this way adds greatly to the wealth of the 
state. The largest irrigation districts are in Scotts Blufif, 
North Platte, and McCook districts. 

There are many lakes in Nebraska, notably in Brown and 
Cherry counties in the Sand Hills region. Some of these 
lakes are several miles in extent and are well stocked with 
bass and other fish. The water is clear and good and the 
quality of the fish exceptionally fine. 

Average Temperature. — The average temperature for 
the year varies with the latitude and elevation. It is about 
fifty-two degrees in the extreme southeastern portion of the 
state at an elevation of about nine hundred feet, and two 
less in the southwestern portion at an elevation of about 
three thousand feet. The mean annual temperature de- 
creases northward at an average of one degree for forty 
miles in the eastern and southern portions of the state, 
while in the northwest the decrease is somewhat less rapid. 
Along the northern boundary the average temperature is 
slightly above forty-six degrees. 

Killing Frost. — The last killing frost in the spring 
occurs in the southeast during April, but later in the north 
and west (about the first of May in the greater portion of 



12 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

the agricultural section). In the more elevated regions, 
devoted principally to grazing, it occurs about two v^^eeks 
later. The first killing frost in the fall occurs as a rule 
in the South Platte country (except in the west portion) 
during the first week in October, and from five to ten days 
earlier in the central and northwestern portions. The 
average number of days without killing frosts, that is, 




Photo by S. D. Butcher 

A Typical Nebr:\ska' Lake , 

from the last frost in the spring to the first frost in the 
fall, is 155 to 165 in the southeastern part of the state, 
145 to 150 in the northeastern, central, and southwestern 
parts, and 130 to 135 in the northwestern part. It is well 
to note this fact when planning crops for the season. 

Plant Life In Nebraska. — The state is rich in plant 
life and supports an unusually large unmber of species. 
Along the Platte and Republican rivers the plants common 
to the Rocky Mountain and the Mississippi Valley regions 
meet in a rich variety. Many kinds of trees and shrubs 
now growing in Nebraska have migrated from the east. 




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14 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

The extension of native plants has been principally along 
the pathway of the streams. The banks of the Niobrara 
River, which flows through the mountainous regions and 
foothills of the Rockies, abound in many mountain 
species. A number of trees and shrubs native to Nebraska 
came from the west. Nebraska is more favorably situ- 
ated for the development of a diversified plant life than 
many of our neighboring states. The plains region was 
originally covered with buffalo and grama grasses, 
especially on the far-reaching and level divides; a coarse 
bunch grass generally covers the sand hills to the west; 
while blue stem abounds in the rolling regions in the east- 
ern section, especially since cultivation began. 

Native Trees. — Sixty-four species of native trees are 
found in Nebraska. There is, however, no place in the 
state where all these trees grow together. There are nine- 
teen species in the northwestern portion of the state, 
twenty-seven in the northeastern, fifteen in the south- 
western, and fifty in the southeastern. 

Wild Flowers. — Nebraska has a rich flora, and its 
wild flowers include many species whose beauty has attracted 
florist and gardener. There are probably three hundred 
species of flowering plants notable for their attractiveness, 
among which may be noted lillies, buttercups, orchids, 
poppies, capers, violets, mallows, evening primrose, wild 
rose, lupines, prairie clovers, morning glories, pentstemons, 
verbenas, sunflowers, asters, goldenrods, and many others. 
Not a few of the species of the southern half of the state 
have come from the plains of the southwest, some even 
from Texas and New Mexico. Others appear to have mi- 
grated from the great northern plains of the Dakotas, and 
still others from the east and from the west. 

Animal Life. — A casual comparison of past and pres- 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 15 

eiit conditions shows that the native animals have greatly 

changed since Nebraska was first settled. Many of the 

earlier forms have disappeared or become restricted in 

their distribution. On the other hand, several forms have 

greatly increased in numbers and have extended their 

range as well. Fifty years ago our plains were covered with 

immense herds of bison, or American buffalo, and elk in 

large bands roamed throughout the middle and western 

portions of the future state. Both species of deer, the 

white-tailed or Virginia, and the black-tailed or mule, were 

to be seen in our woodlands, among the fringes of brush and 

trees that marked the smaller water courses, or in the tall 

grasses of the sand hills, where they hid during the day from 

their enemies. The antelope ranged the prairie at will, even to 

within a comparatively short distance from our eastern 

borders. Some mountain sheep, too, were at home in the 

rougher country of the northwest, while at times small 

bands of wild horses also galloped over the plains.^ In a 

measure dependent upon these for their food supply were 

foxes, wolves, panthers, lynxes, and even a few bears. 

Where the bison, elk, deer, and antelope once browsed our 

grasses, we now have instead herds of cattle and sheep. The 

larger and fiercer carnivora, along with forms upon which 

they were dependent, have been killed or driven away. 

Our- Smaller Animals. — The beaver, otter, wolverine, 

badger, and several others of the fur-bearing kinds are now 

very scarce where they were once common or even abundant. 

The muskrat is still plentiful about Nebraska lakes and 

streams and its fur, in the proper season, is a source of 

revenue to the trapper. A few of the rodents, such as are 

favored by the cultivation of the soil and growing of grain, 

1 These were descended from horses formerly traded to the Indians 
by early explorers and permitted to escape and run at large until a 
wild state was reached. 




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SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 17 

instead of diminishing have increased. These include the 
prairie dog, pocket gopher, and ground squirrel. 

QUESTIONS — CHAPTER I 

1. What is meant by economic value? 

2. What rivers unite to form the Missouri River? 

3. How are environment and topography used in the text? 

4. How can the water in the streams be used by farmers, 
towns, and cities? 

5. Let each member of the class, working by himself, make a list 
of the trees in the school district. Then have the pupils compare 
their lists. 

6. Have the pupils make lists of the wild flowers in the com- 
munity. Then have them compare their lists. 

7. How many of the class have seen the wild animals mentioned 
in the text? 



CHAPTER II 

The Indians. — When Nebraska was first discovered 
by the white man, the territory was in the hands of the 
Indians. They evidently came to this country from east of 
the Appalachians and overran the entire Mississippi Valley. 
The tribes occupying this section belonged to two linguistic 
families, the Algonkian and Siouan. The Nebraska Indians 
were grouped in seven tribes speaking six different lan- 
guages.^ The herds of buffaloes, which roamed over the 
prairies, supplied almost every need of Indian life. Buffalo 
meat provided food; buffalo skin furnished material for 
clothing and tents ; and the bones of the buffalo made use- 
ful implements. Buffalo ''chips''^ were the fuel supply, not 
only of the Indians but also of the early white settlers. 
How much of the food supply of the Indians was furnished 
by agricultural pursuits is not known, but the Indians grew 
corn, beans, squashes, pumpkins, usually in a primitive 
manner, and gathered some vegetable food from wild 
rice which grew in the lakes of the state. From other 
native plants they obtained fiber for ropes and cordage. 
Some of the streams furnished fish of various kinds. The 
Nebraska country, on the whole, did not lack the necessary 
supplies of food. 

Indian Tribes and Their Distribution. — The Dakotas, 
commonly called the Sioux, occupied that part of Nebraska 
lying north of the Platte River and west of a line nmning 

1 The Dakotas or Sioux, the Poncas, the Omahas, the Otoes, the 
IMissouris, the Pawnees, and the Arapahoes and Cheyennes. 

2 Dried droppings of the buffaloes picked up on the prairies. 

18 



20 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

in a southwesterly direction and crossing it at the forks, 
near the present city of North Platte. The Poncas occupied 
the territory on the Missouri River north of the Niobrara, 
partly in Nebraska and partly in South Dakota. The Omaha 
territory stretched from the Missouri River west to the 
Sand Hills and from the Platte River to the Niobrara. The 
Otoe and the Missouri tribes held the country along the 
Missouri River from the Platte to the Big Nemaha. The 
Pawnee country lay west of the Otoe and Omaha, extend- 
ing from the Niobrara southward across the Sand Hills 
region, the Loup River, the Platte, and the Republican to 
the Solomon River in Kansas. Southwestern Nebraska 
formerly belonged to the Arapahoe and Cheyenne Indians, 
who lived together. 

Indian Hom€s. — The Omaha, Otoe, Missouri, Ponca, 
and Pawnee Indians dwelt in fixed villages along streams 
where wood and water were plentiful and where crops 
could be gathered from the rich valley soil. Their homes 
were of frame work covered with earth; their tents were 
of bufifalo skins. For traveling they constructed a rude 
vehicle by fastening two poles to a horse, one on each side, 
letting the two rear ends drag on the ground. Between 
these two poles, just behind the horse, was suspended a 
buffalo skin to hold the children and baggage. The men 
usually rode ponies ; the women often walked. 

The following extract from an article in the Huntsman's 
Bcho, published at Wood River Center,^ Nebraska, in 1859, 
contains an interesting description of the home life of the 
Pawnees : 

The Pawnees number at present about four thousand 
souls and a fraction over, and when "at home" live in a 

1 Wood River Center was a little west of where the town of Wood 
River is now located. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 21 

cluster of huts built with crotches and poles, covered, 
top and sides, with willows, then with grass and dirt, 
giving the appearance at a little distance of an immense 
collection of "potato hills," all of a circular shape and 
oval. The entrance is through a passage walled with 
earth, and the hole in the center at the top serving both for 
window and chimney, the fire being built in the middle. 
Along the sides little apartments are divided ofif from the 
main room by partitions of willow, rush, or flag, some 
of them being neatly and tidily constructed ; and alto- 
gether these lodges are quite roomy and comfortable, and 
each is frequently the abode of two or. more families. 
In these villages there is no regularity of streets, walks, 
or alleys, but each builds in a rather promiscuous man- 
ner, having no other care than taste and convenience. 
The tribe is divided into five bands, each being under a 
special chief or leader, the whole confederation being un- 
der one principal chief. Each band has its habitation 
separate and distinct from the other, three bands living 
in villages adjoining and all composing one village; the 
other two villages, some little distance. There is fre- 
quently some considerable rivalry between several bands 
in fighting, hunting, and other sports, and not infre- 
quently one band commits thefts upon the effects of an- 
other. 

The females are the working bees of the hive; they 
dig up the soil, raise and gather the crops, cut timber and 
build the lodges, pack wood and water, cook, nurse the 
babies, carry all the burdens, tan the skins, and make the 
robes and moccasins. The lords of the other sex recline 
by the fire or in the shade, kill the game and their 
enemies, do the stealing and most of the eating, wear 
most of the ornaments, and play the dandy in their way 
to a scratch. They are of a tall, graceful, and athletic 
figure, as straight as an arrow and as proud as a lord, 
whilst the squaws are short, thick, stooping, poorly clad, 
filthy, and squalid. Parentless children and the very aged 
are sometimes left behind, or by the wayside, to perish 
as useless. 
Indian Warfare. — The Indians were not always at 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 23 

peace with each other. Their hunting grounds often over- 
lapped (see map of tribes), and disputes about boundaries 
sometimes led to conflicts. In the earliest times they used 
the rude weapons of primitive peoples, but later as white 
men began to come into the country firearms were intro- 
duced. The Indians were experts with the spear and with 
the bow and arrow. 

To win in warfare, the Indian relied largely on out- 
numbering his enemy or outwitting him by ambush or other 
stealthy practices. His modes of warfare were not success- 
ful against the whites, when both sides were approximately 
equal. Two of the most noted western massacres, those of 
Colonel Fetterman's and General Custer's bands, were ac- 
complished by Indians who outnumbered the whites by ten to 
one, or more.^ 

Indian Lands Ceded to the United States. — The Paw- 
nee Confederacy comprised four tribes : the Grand Pawnee, 
the Wolf Pawnee, the Republican Pawnee, and the Tapage 
Pawnee. They ceded all their lands to the United States in 
accordance with an agreement and accepted a new reserva- 
tion in Indian Territory, now a part of Oklahoma. The 
Omahas were removed in 1854 to their reservation at Winne- 
bago, where they remain. The Otoe and Missouri Indians 
lived on the south bank of the Platte River in Saunders 
County near the site of Yutan, which place is named after 
their chief tan, Itan. They were shifted from reservation 
to reservation until 1881, when they went to their new home 
in Indian Territory. The Poncas were removed to a reserva- 
tion on Ponca Creek in 1877. The Cheyenne and 
Arapahoes ceded all their territory to the United States in 
1867 and then took up their abode in Indian Territory. 

1 Assign the Fetterman and Custer massacres for outside work and 
report in class. 



24 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

The Dakotas or Sioux Indians were hostile and gave 
great trouble by coming down into Nebraska on marauding 
expeditions. By the treaty of April 29, 1868, they were 
limited to a reservation mostly in South Dakota but ex- 
tending into Nebraska as far as the Niobrara River, with 
privileges of hunting in part of Nebraska. The people of 
Nebraska protested against the permission thus granted to 
hostile Indians to trespass on their state. In 1876 another 
agreement was made by which the Dakotas gave up forever 
the right to come into Nebraska on these expeditions. They 
are now (1919) on various reservations in South Dakota. 
Only the Santees live in Nebraska. They were removed to 
a small reservation on the south side of the Niobrara 
River in Knox County. 

While it was inevitable that the Indian would be com- 
pelled to surrender his hunting grounds and cede his vast 
territory to his white brother, superior in civilization and 
progress, he should not be blamed for the defense of what 
to him was his country and his home. 

Some Famous Indian Chieftains. — Among the famous 
Indian chieftans who have ruled over the Nebraska tribes 
are ''Red Cloud," "Spotted Tail," and "Man Chief," repre- 
senting the Sioux and the Pawnees, and Logan Fontenelle 
representing the Omahas. 

Marpiya Luta ("Red Cloud"), chief of the Ogallalla 
Sioux, was born in 1821, in what is now Deuel County, Ne- 
braska. He won his name at the age of sixteen. He was 
a courageous leader of his people against the Crows, Sho- 
shones, and Pawnees, He slew "Bull Bear," a prominent 
Sioux chief, in a tribal feud. He planned and led the 
fight against Fort Phil Kearny, Wyoming, in 1866, when 
nearly one hundred soldiers were slain. ^ He abandoned the 

1 This was the massacre of Colonel Fetterman and his men. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 



25 



war path in 1869 and remained at peace with the whites 
thereafter. 

Sentegaleska (''Spotted Tail") was a Brule Sioux chief 




From a photograph owned, 'by Mr. A. E. Sheldon. 

Marpiya Luta (Red Cloud) 
Chief of the Ogallala Sioux, at the age of seventy years 



of northwestern Nebraska. He "got his man" ^ at the age 

of eighteen and rose rapidly thereafter, finally becoming 

hereditary chief of the entire Sioux nation. He was friendly 

1 "Got his man" is a Western expression used for killing a man, 
usually in defense of one's person or certain rights. 



26 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 



to the whites and was always trustworthy in his deaUngs 
with them. "Crow Dog" murdered him in 1881. 

Pit-a-le-shar-u ("Man Chief"), a leader of the Pawnees, 




Photograph owned by the Nebraska Historical Society. 

Sentegai^eska (Spotted Tail) 
Hereditary Chief of the Sioux 

was born in 1823 and lived south of Fremont until the 
Pawnees removed to a place near Genoa. "Man Chief" was 
one of the great Indian orators. It is said of him that he 
ruled by persuasion and not by arbitrary power. "The white 
people I love" was one of his favorite expressions. His 



f^v^--..^^¥te-I 




±rom a photograph in the Coffin Collection, in the Museum 
of the ^ebiaska State Historical Society. 

PiT-A-LE-SHAR-U (MaN ChIEF) 

Head chief of the Pawnees 



28 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

memory is honored in the name of the town of Leshara in 
Saunders County. 

Logan Fontenelle was a son of Lucien Fontenelle who 
was connected with the Missouri Fur Company about the 
time of Manuel de Lisa's death, 1820, Lucien Fontenelle 
spent most of his time at Fort Laramie in what is now Wy- 
oming. He came to Bellevue in 1839, where he lived with his 
family until his death in 1840. He married a woman of the 
Omaha tribe and they had five children. One of them, 
Logan Fontenelle, born in 1825, became a chief of the 
Omahas and a man of mwch note among the Indians and 
the early settlers. He was educated in St. Louis, but was 
compelled to leave school at the age of fifteen on ac- 
count of the death of his father in 1840. Soon after he 
became government interpreter, a position which he held 
until 1853. He was a man of strong character and high 
ideals, and an advocate of temperance and other better 
habits among his tribesmen. His death occurred at the 
early age of thirty years, but he had accomplished much 
good even in so short a life. His memory is honored in 
the name of Omaha's beautiful hotel. The Fontenelle. 

Henry Fontenelle has given this account of his brother's 
death : 

In June, 1855, Logan went with the tribe as usual on 
their summer buffalo hunt, and, as usual, their enemies, 
the Sioux, laid in wait for the Omahas in vicinities of 
large herds of buffalo. The first surrounding they made 
on the buffalo the Sioux made a descent upon them in 
overwhelming numbers and turned the chase into battle. 
Four Omahas were killed and several wounded. In 
every attempt at getting buffaloes the Sioux charged upon 
them. The Omahas concluded it was useless to try to 
get any buffalo and retreated toward home. They trav- 
eled three days and, thinking they were out of danger, 
Logan one morning in company with Louis Saunsoci and 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 



29 



another Indian started ahead of the moving village and 
were about three miles away when they espied a herd of 
elk in the distance. Logan proposed chase, they started ; 




Engravvng from a photograph owned by John 
Q. Go8S, Bellevue, Nebraska. 

Logan Fontenei^IvE (Shon-ga-ska) 
Elected principal chief of the Omahas 



that was the last seen of him alive. The same moment 
the village was surrounded by the Sioux. About ten 
o'clock in the morning a battle ensued and lasted until 
three o'clock, when they learned that Logan was killed. 
His body was found [in the vicinity of the present city of 



30 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

Fremont] and brought into Bellevue and buried by the 
side of his father. 

Coronado's Expedition. — Francisco Vasquez de Coro- 
nado, governor of Galicia, a western border province of 
Mexico, was probably the first white man who traversed 
a portion of what is now the state of Nebraska.^ Spanish 
records tell the story of this brilliant adventurer, his 
march from the City of Mexico to the land of Quivera, 
and the thrilling adventures of the journey. 

At the present site of the town of Great Bend, Kansas, 
Coronado found the first Quivera village. He first met In- 
dians of that name not far from Kingsley and Larned, Kan- 
sas. Failing to find the expected gold and other riches, 
there was nothing left for him to do but to fall back upon 
the riches of the soil. Jaramilloy one of the chroniclers of 
the expedition, says that "some satisfaction was experienced 
on seeing the good appearance of the earth," and Coronado 
himself writes that the soil was "fat and black" and "the 
best I have ever seen for producing all the products of 
Spain." Nothing resulted from Coronado's expedition that 
is of special interest to Nebraska. 

The Mallett Brothers. — The earliest authenticated ex- 
ploration by white men on Nebraska soil was that of two 
brothers, Pierre and Paul Mallett, and six other Frenchmen 
in June, 1739. The Mallett brothers had probably come up 
from New Orleans the year before and had wintered near 
the mouth of the Niobrara River. An account of their 
journey from that neighborhood to Santa Fe forms a part 
of the Margry Papers. These consist of reports to the 
French authorities at New Orleans by early French ex- 
plorers of the Trans-Mississippi country. They have been 

1 In July, 1541, with thirty Spanish horsemen, he reached Quivera, 
"in the 40th degree of latitude," near the Nebraska-Kansas line. 



i 



32 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

printed by Margry of Paris. The Mallett brothers travelled 
from near the mouth of the Niobrara south to the Platte, 
which they named the "River Plate." They followed this 
stream in a westerly direction for about two hundred miles, 
probably discovering the mouth of the Loup River and the 
forks of the Platte. They passed out of Nebraska to the 
southwest on their way to Santa Fe and reported a plains 
country, a part of the way being without wood even for a 
fire. 

QUESTIONS — CHAPTER II 

1. How many of the class have seen Indians of the tribes men- 
tioned in the text? 

2. How many of the class can tell the places named in honor of 
an Indian tribe? 

3. What is the meaning of Niobrara? 

4. In what county is Winnebago? Why is it so-called? 

5. Compare Nebraska with Kansas in area, population, and num- 
ber of counties. 



CHAPTER III 

The Expedition of Lewis and Clark — Its Purpose. — 

In 1803, before there was any particular thought or pros- 
pect of the acquisition of Louisiana by the United States, 
President Jefferson conceived the idea of sending an expe- 
dition to explore the Missouri River country for the pur- 
pose of promoting trade. Immediately after the purchase, 
Congress made an appropriation to cover the expense of 
such an expedition. ,On Monday, May 14, 1804, the Lewis 
and Clark expedition left its camp at Wood River, a small 
stream which empties into the Mississippi opposite the en- 
trance of the Missouri. The following description of the 
comipany and outfit is taken from the Journal of Lezvis and 
Clark : 

The party consisted of nine young men from Ken- 
tucky, fourteen soldiers of the United States army who 
volunteered their services, two French watermen, an in- 
terpreter and hunter, and a black slave belonging to Cap- 
tain Clark. All of these except the last were enlisted to 
serve as privates during the expedition, and three ser- 
geants appointed from amongst them by the captains. 
In addition to these were engaged a corporal and six 
soldiers, and nine watermen to accompany the expedition 
as far as the Mandan nation, in order to assist in carry- 
ing the stores, or repelling an attack, which was most 
to be apprehended between Wood River and that tribe. 

The necessary stores were subdivided into seven bales 
and one box containing a small portion of each article 
in case of accident. They consisted of a great variety of 
clothing, working utensils, locks, flints, powder, ball, and 
articles of great use. To these were added fourteen bales 
and one box of Indian presents distributed in the same 

33 




v1 




SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 35 

manner and composed of richly laced coats and other 
articles of dress, medals, flags, knives, and tomahawks 
for the chiefs, ornaments of different kinds, particularly 
beads, looking glasses, handkerchiefs, paints, and gener- 
ally such articles as were deemed best calculated for the 
taste of the Indians. 

The party was to embark on board of three boats : 
first was a keel boat fifty-five feet long, drawing three 
feet of water, one large square sail, and twenty-two oars ; 
a deck of ten feet in the bow and stern formed a fore- 
castle and cabin, while the middle was formed by lockers 
which might be raised so as to form a breastwork in case 
of attack. This was accompanied by two perioques or 
open boats, one of six and the other of seven oars. Two 
horses were at the same time to be led along the banks 
of the river for the purpose of bringing home game, or 
hunting in case of scarcity. 

Viewing the Border. — Proceeding up the Missouri 
River, the expedition came in sight of Nebraska July 11, 
1804, and camped on the Missouri side opposite the mouth 
of the Big Nem.aha. On the following day some members 
of the expedition explored the lower valley of that river. 
This expedition is of peculiar importance as it gives the first 
historical glimpse of the eastern border of the state. The 
explorers first camped on Nebraska soil July 15, near the 
mouth of the Little Nemaha. They camped July 18 not 
far from the present site of Nebraska City. On the 21st of 
July the party camped on the Nebraska side, just north of 
the Platte. They passed on up the river the next morning 
and camped on the eastern banks where they remained five 
days. They explored the country in all directions and sent 
out for the Indians to meet them at a council at a point ten 
miles up the river. At this point dispatches and maps were 
prepared to be sent to the President. They left their horses 
on the western bank and continued their journey. 



36 



SCHOOL PIISTORY OF NEBRASKA 



The Camp at Council Bluffs. — The camp on July 
30th at Council Bluffs ^ was the most important on Nebraska 
soil. Subsequently it became the site of the first military 
post established in Nebraska. There is no doubt that the 
recommendation of Lewis and Clark determined the loca- 
tion of what was afterwards known as Camp Missouri, later 




Lewis and Clark Monument 



as Fort Atkinson, and finally as Fort Calhoun, a little north 
of Omaha. 

A few days later in the vicinity of Winnebago the ex- 
plorers tell in their journal of catching over four hundred 
fish from the Omaha creek with an improvised seine. They 
record a council held with the Otoes and Missouris, who 
were then at war with the Omahas and very much afraid of 
war with the Pawnees. Within a day or two they record 
the death of Sergeant Floyd, "one of the nine young men 
from Kentucky," on the Iowa side near the present site of 
Sioux City. He was buried near the Floyd River which 
bears his name. In 1901 a monument one hundred feet high 

1 On the west side of the Missouri River ahoiit ten miles north of 
Omaha. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 37 

was dedicated to his name as a mark of esteem for the 
courage and effort that led him to explore the unknown west 
while in the service of his country. 

White Traders Precede Lewis and Clark. — At Council 
Bluffs a council with the Indians was held. There were 
fourteen Indians present at the meeting, six of them being 
chiefs. These Indians were accompanied by a Frenchman 
who resided among them. The explorers moved up the 
stream and on the 4th of August they came upon a trading 
post on the Nebraska side, a fact which shows that they 
were preceded by the French traders. The expedition fol- 
lowed the Missiouri to its head waters, and after passing 
over the Rocky Mountains followed streams which flowed 
into the Columbia River, down which they passed to its 
mouth. 

The Return Trip. — Lewis and Clark on the return trip 
reached the northwestern corner of what is now Nebraska 
August 31, 1806, and left the southeast corner September 
11th, having made the uneventful journey in twelve days. 
The upstream passage of this part of the route had required 
fifty-seven days. 

Crooks and McLellan. — On the return of Lewis and 
Clark in 1806 they brought with them to St. Louis Shahaka, 
the chief of the Mandan Indians of the "present South Da- 
kota. He went to Washington for consultation with Presi- 
dent Jefferson, under the promise of safe escort back to 
his home. The next summer Ensign Nathaniel Pryor, who 
had been a sergeant in the Lewis and Clark party, under- 
took to escort the chief up the river to his home. The com- 
mand consisted of fourteen soldiers in all, but it was united 
with a party of thirty-two men led by Pierre Chouteau.^ 

1 Pierre Chouteau was heavily interested in fur trading throughout 
the northwest. One of his many posts was at Bellevue, Nebraska. 
See his biography. 



38 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 



When they attempted to pass the Lower Ankara village in 
northern South Dakota, the Indians attacked them and 
drove them back. On their return they met Ramsey Crooks 




Pierre Chouteau, Jr. 
A master mind in the early fur trade 



and Robert McLellan, two intrepid explorers and fur 
traders of the northwest, who with a company of eighty 
men had started up the Missouri River to gather furs. 
Crooks and McLellan established a camp probably near 
Bellevue and remained there until the spring of 1810. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 39 

Zebulon M. Pike. — July 15, 1806, Lieutenant Zebulon 
M. Pike, with a party consisting of two lieutenants, one 
surgeon, two corporals, sixteen privates, and an interpre- 
ter, started from Belle Fontaine, four miles above the 
mouth of the Missouri River, on the expedition which re- 
sulted in the discovery of Pike's Peak. The expedition 
was sent out by General James Wilkinson, then commander- 
in-chief of the army of the United States and also gover- 
nor of the Louisiana territory. The object of the expedi- 
tion was to establish friendly relations with the Indians of 
the interior and probably also to gain information relative 
to the Spaniards, who were dissatisfied with the sale of the 
territory by Napoleon. 

Route of the Expedition. — Pike and his company trav- 
eled up the Missouri River to the mouth of the Osage and 
then up this stream to the Osage villages near its source. 
Thence the party took a northwesterly course, probably 
entering Nebraska near the point where the Republican 
River leaves the state. The party camped on the north side 
of the river near the Pawnee village. 

A Rival Spanish Expedition. — Shortly before Pike 
came to the Pawnees, they had been visited by an expedi- 
tion under the Spanish lieutenant Maygares, who marched 
from Santa Fe with about six hundred soldiers and two 
thousand horses and mules. A large number of men and 
horses unfit for service were left at the crossing of the 
Arkansas River. The trail from that river to the Pawnee 
village was plainly marked. Pike's party found a Spanish 
flag flying over the council lodge of the Pawnees. This 
Spanish expedition was evidently sent to intercept Pike 
and also to make an alliance with the Indians. 

The Astoria Expedition. — In 1810 John Jacob Astor 
of New York organized the Pacific Fur Company, a part- 



40 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

nership including himself and several others, among whom 
was Wilson Hunt, for the purpose of colonization and trade 
at the mouth of the Columbia River. Astor was encour- 
aged in his enterprise by the United States government. 
The partners, with the exception of Hunt, sailed by the ocean 
route in September, 1810, and founded Astoria at the mouth 
of the Columbia. In October of the same year Hunt 
started up the Missouri in order to reach Astoria by the 
overland route. The expedition came to the mouth of the 
Nodaway River in November and went into winter quarters. 
The party consisted of about sixty-five men, five of them 
partners in the enterprise. On the 28th of April, 1811, 
they reached an island in the mouth of the Platte. They 
halted for two days on the bank of the Missouri a little 
above tlie mouth of Papillion Creek, and therefore on or 
near the site of Bellevue. 

Astorians Take an Unknown Route. — Hunt and his 
company did not follow the Missouri to its source, as did 
Lewis and Clark, but stopped at the Ankara villages which 
were situated near the mouth of the Grand River, now in 
South Dakota. Here they bought horses from the Indians 
and secured supplies for their journey. They traveled 
through an unknown country and suffered greatly from 
the cold. They reached the mouth of the Columbia in two 
parties early in January and February, 1812.^ 

The Wanderings of Robert Stuart. — On the 28th day 
of June, 1812, Robert Stuart started from Astoria with 
five of Hunt's original party on a return trip overland. At 
Fort Henry, on the north fork of the Snake River in south- 
eastern Idaho, he was joined by four or five men who had 
been detached by Hunt on the 10th of the previous Octo- 
ber to hunt and trap. In bearing south, to avoid the Black- 

1 See Irving's Astoria. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 41 

feet Indians, they fell in with the Crows, who stole their 
horses and other equipment, leaving them afoot over a 
thousand miles from white settlement. They traded a pis- 
tol, a knife, and an ax to the Snake Indians for an old 
horse on which to carry their luggage. They crossed the 
mountains in Wyoming and came out on the plains at or 
near the South Pass. The Union Pacific railroad was af- 
terward built near this pass. Stuart has left a written ac- 
count of this journey. It is a valuable description of the 
country traversed and a great aid in locating the Oregon 
Trail. After a journey of terrible hardship they estab- 
lished winter quarters on the North Platte, not far east of 
the place where it issues from the mountains in Wyoming. 
At the end of six weeks they were driven out by the Indians 
and proceeded three hundred and thirty miles down the 
Platte; and then despairing of being able to pass safely over 
the desert plain covered with snow which confronted them, 
they retraced over seventy-seven miles of their course until 
they found a suitable winter camp in what is now Scotts- 
bluff County, where they went into winter quarters on the 
30th of December, 1812. On the 8th of March, 1813, they 
tried to navigate the stream in canoes but found it imprac- 
ticable and proceeded on foot to a point about forty-five 
miles from the mouth of the Platte, where they embarked 
April 16, in a large canoe made for their purpose by the 
Indians. 

Major Long's Expedition. — Major Stephen H. Long, 
of the United States topographical survey, set out on June 
6, 1820, to explore along the shores of the Platte. The ex- 
pedition under his command comprised six regular soldiers 
and eleven other men, most of whom were specialists needed 
in the scientific expedition. The Pawnee Trail was fol- 
lowed southwesterly to the Platte Valley; from that place 



42 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

the expedition proceeded along the north side of the river 
to the forks, and the.nce followed the south bank of the 
South Platte to the Rocky Mountains. By the end of June 
they were able to see the mountains. They discovered the 
important peak located in Estes Park, Colorado, which 
bears the name, Long's Peak. 

The First Steamboat on the Missouri River. — Such 
importance as may be attached to Long's expedition, 1819- 
1820, is due to the fact that it was the occasion of the pas- 
sage of the first steamboat up the Missouri, and the estab- 
lishment of the first military post within the limits of the 
territory. The post was first called Camp Missouri ; its name 
was later changed to Fort Atkinson after its founder. Gen- 
eral Atkinson, the commander of the Yellowstone expedi- 
tion. This fort was probably abandoned because of the 
failure of the up-river fur-trading enterprise. Subsequent- 
ly, a fort was established at Leavenworth, Kansas. Fort 
Atkinson was not in the line of travel as it was then de- 
veloping, while the new Fort Leavenworth marked the be- 
ginning of the Santa Fe and Oregon Trails, where traffic 
was of considerable and growing importance. 

The Yellowstone Expedition. — This was undertaken 
for the purpose of finding out whether it was practicable 
for steamboats to navigate the Missouri River, and to es- 
tablish military posts, one of them as high as the mouth of 
the Yellowstone River, near the western boundary of North 
Dakota, to protect American traders and trappers from the 
Indians and from British traders and trappers who per- 
sisted in trespassing upon our territory. The expedition 
comprised a military division and a scientific division. 
Henry Atkinson commanded the first, and Major Stephen 
H. Long the latter. 

A Newspaper Account of the First Steamboat to As- 



44 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

cend the Missouri River. — The Franklin Intelligencer of 
May 28, 1819, which was published at Franklin, Missouri,, 
made the following announcement : 

With no ordinary sensation of pride and pleasure we 
announce the arrival this morning of the elegant steam- 
boat. Independence, Captain Nelson, in seven sailing 
days (but thirteen from the time of her departure) from 
St. Louis, with passengers and a cargo of flour, whisky, 
iron castings, etc., being the first steamboat that ever 
attempted to ascend the Missouri. The grand desidera- 
tum, the important fact is now acknowledged that steam- 
boats can successfully navigate the Missouri. 

A few months after the arrival of the Independence at 
Franklin another attempt was made to ascend the Missouri. 
The government of the United vStates, wishing to send a 
military expedition up the Missouri, contracted with James 
Johnson to transport the soldiers and their supplies in 
steamboats as far as Council Bluffs. The expedition, which 
should have started early in the spring, did not leave St. 
Louis until July. This put them into the Missouri in the 
late summer season, when the stream is usually low. Four 
boats undertook the journey: the Calhoun, the Bxpcdition, 
the Thomas Jefferson, and the Johnson. The Calhoun was 
unable to navigate the Mississippi on account of a break- 
down of her machinery. The Thomas Jefferson went about 
one hundred and sixty-five miles and stopped forty miles 
below Franklin, Missouri. The Johnson stopped about 
forty miles below the mouth of the Kansas River. Keel 
boats were brought into service when each boat failed, but 
the expedition got no further than Council Bluffs, which 
was about half the distance to the mouth of the Yellow- 
stone, the destination. A better managed expedition in 1820 
carried a full cargo of supplies to the military post at Coun- 
cil Bluffs without difficulty. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 



45 



Manuel de Lisa. — The earliest settlements blend with 
the expeditions of discovery and exploration. Manuel de 




CL> 



C-^a.n^a/yC <^J-a, 




Lisa seems to have done his share in opening the way for 
those who were to come after. He was doubtless the most 
remarkable man among the early explorers and traders of 



46 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

the Missouri River country. "In boldness of enterprise, 
persistency of purpose, and in restless energy he was a fair 
representative of the Spaniard of the days of Cortes. He 
was a man of great ability, a masterly judge of men, thor- 
oughly experienced in the Indian trade and native customs, 
intensely active in his work, yet withal a perfect enigma of 
character which his contemporaries were never able to 
solve." He was selected to command nearly every expedi- 
tion sent out by St. Louis companies of which he was a mem- 
ber. Lisa was born of Spanish parents in Cuba in 1772. 

Lisa's Expeditions. — The return of Lewis and Clark 
excited Lisa's ambition to establish trade on the upper Mis- 
souri, and in 1807 he led an expedition as far as the mouth 
of the Big Horn, where he established a post called Fort 
Lisa. Under the direction of the Missouri Fur Company 
of St. Louis, in which he was a partner, he led the expedition 
of one hundred and fifty men to the Big Horn post, but 
returned to St. Louis for the winter. Every year from 1807 
to 1819, inclusive, with but one possible exception, he made 
the upper Missouri trip, twice to the Big Horn, a distance 
of two thousand miles, several times to Fort Mandan, fifteen 
hundred miles, the rest of the journeys being to Fort Lisa at 
Council BlufYs,^ six hundred and seventy miles. After he 
established Fort Lisa (later Fort Calhoun) in 1812, he spent 
most of his winters there, returning each spring to St. Louis. 
Fort Lisa was six miles below the original Council Bluffs 
where Lewis and Clark held council with the Indians in 1804. 

Lisa's Last Sojourn in Nebraska. — Lisa's last sojourn 

in his Nebraska home was in 1819, and at this time his wife, 

whom he had recently married in St. Louis, was with him. 

Mrs. Mary Lisa is believed to be the first white woman 

1 There is a tradition that Lisa visited the site of Bellevue in 
1804 and gave that place its name. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 47 

to reside in Nebraska or to ascend the Missouri. Lisa 
kept one woman of the Omaha tribe as wife, and there is a 
tragic story of his final separation from her before his 
last trip back to St. Louis and of her giving up to him their 
two children to be educated because she thought it would be 
best for them. Lisa died in St. Louis in 1820. 

Milton Sublette. — In the spring of 1830 Milton Sub- 
lette followed nearly the same trail that the returning Astor- 
ians, under Robert Stuart, had traversed in 1813. There 
were few traces of the Stuart trail, and Sublette could only 
follow it in a general way. He had ten wagons and a party 
of men. They also took with them a cow that they might 
have milk to use on the trip. They reached the Wind River 
Mountains in Southwestern Wyoming in July. They ob- 
tained from the Indians a large quantity of valuable furs 
and returned to St. Louis the same fall. Their wagons left 
sufficient imprint on the prairie up the valley of the Little 
Blue and the Platte to be followed by other travelers, and 
thus was established the famous highway that became dis- 
tinguished as the Oregon Trail. 

Captain Benjamin Louis Eulalia Bonneville. — Captain 
Bonneville was a diligent wanderer rather -than an explorer ; 
he owes his fame largely to the fact that the fascinating 
Irving was his historian. Bonneville was born in France 
in 1796, and when a small boy was brought to this country 
by his mother, his father being detained in France by Na- 
poleon on account of having issued some offensive political 
pamphlets. Bonneville was appointed to West Point, grad- 
uated there in 1819, and was then named on the staff of 
General Lafayette, with whom he toured the United States 
and afterwards went to France as his guest. He saw some 
service in the American army on the frontier, but wishing 
to engage in the fur trade, secured leave of absence. He 



48 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 



took a party of about one hundred men with twenty four- 
horse wagons over the Oregon Trail in the spring of 1832. 
This was the first wagon train over that part of the trail 
known as the cut-off between Independence and Grand 




Benjamin Louis Eui.ai.ia Bonnevii.i.e 



Island. Bonneville traveled over the whole northwest 
mountain region, including the Columbia River country, 
until the spring of 1835. The gallant captain was a con- 
spicuous figure in the Seminole War, and later went with his 
command into Mexico.^ 

Fremont's First Expedition. — In 1842 Lieutenant J. C. 

1 While Captain Bonneville's travels resulted in little benefit to 
Nebraska, they will be found interesting reading as described in 
Washington Irving's Bonneville's Adventures. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 49 

Fremont was detailed "to explore and report upon the 
country between the frontiers of Missouri and the south 
pass in the Rocky Mountains and o.n the line of the Kansas 
and great Platte rivers." The expedition consisted of 
twenty-seven men. Kit Carson, the famous guide, was a 
member of the party. They left Chouteau's trading post 
about twelve miles above the mouth of the Kansas River 
in June, following the Oregon Trail to the mountains. 
On the return journey the expedition followed the Platte 
to its mouth. Fremont's early attempt to navigate the river 
proved to be a failure. His own account is interesting : 

At this place [the junction of the North Platte and 
the South] I had determined to make another attempt 
to descend the Platte by water, and accordingly spent 
two days in the construction of a bull boat. Men were 
sent out on the evening of our arrival, the necessary num- 
ber of buffalo bulls killed, and their skins brought to 
camp. Four of the best of them were strongly sewed 
together with buffalo sinew, and stretched over a bas- 
ket frame of willow. The seams were then covered with 
ashes and tallow and the boat left exposed to the sun the 
greater part of one day, which was sufficient to dry and 
contract the skin and make the whole work solid and 
strong. It had a rounded bow, was eight feet long and 
five feet broad, and drew with four men about four 
inches of water. On the morning of the 15th we em- 
barked in our hide boat, Mr. Preuss and myself with 
two men. We dragged over the sands for three or four 
miles, and then left her on the bar, and abandoned en- 
tirely all further attempts to navigate this river. The 
names given by the Indians are remarkably appropriate; 
and certainly none was ever more so than that which they 
gave to this stream — "the Nebraska, or Shallow River." 

In 1843 Fremont made a second expedition into the plains 
region. He passed up the Kansas and Republican rivers to 
what is now Dundy County, Nebraska, and then journeyed 



50 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 



in a northwesterly direction to the Platte River, which he 
followed to the mountains. 

Colonel Kearny's Expedition. — May 18, 1845, Colonel 
Stephen W. Kearny started from Fort Leavenworth ''on an 




John C. Frlmont 



expedition through the Indian country." His command 
consisted of five companies of the first regiment of dra- 
goons, two hundred and fifty in number. Kearny followed 
the Oregon Trail all of the way through the Nebraska coun- 
try. Colonel Kearny is honored in Nebraska by having his 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 51 

name given to old Fort Kearny, established in 1847 near the 
present site of Nebraska City/ 

Peter A. Sarpy. — This pioneer was born in 1804. But 
little is known of his early life except that he was of French 




uroiu an oca uugaerreOi,ype luiceri in i^oo at 
Council Bluffs, loiva, and given to the Nehraslca 
State Historical Society by J. Sterling Morton. 

Peter A. Sarpy 

extraction and was educated in St. Louis where his relatives, 

the Chouteaus, occupied a high social position. His father 

was said to be the first white man to attempt to navigate 

the Missouri in a keel boat. About 1823 Sarpy came to 

Nebraska as a clerk for the American Fur Company and a 

1 The fort was afterwards removed to a site eight miles southeast 
of the present city of Kearney. 



52 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 



year later succeeded to the managership of the post at 
Bellevue. Soon after this he estabHshed a post on the 
Iowa side of the river which he named Trader's Point. This 




Ni-co-Mi (Voice of the Waters) 
Indian wife of Peter A. Sarpy 



post was used for the accommodation of the whites, while 
the Bellevue post chiefly supplied the Indians. In 1853 he 
established ferries across the Elkhorn River near where 
the town of Elkhorn now is and on the Loup River near the 
present site of Columbus. Sarpy loved the freedom of the 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 



53 



west and was intimately associated with the Indians, being 
honored with the title of "White Chief" by the Omahas. He 
married according to the Indian custom Ni-co-mi, a woman 
of the Iowa Indians, to whorfi he was greatly attached. 




Peter J. DeSmet, S. J. 



Sarpy County was named in his honor and an imposing 
monument stands at his grave in Calvary Cemetery, St. 
Louis. 

Peter J. DeSmet. — Father DeSmet, born in Belgium 
in 1801, came to St. Louis in 1829, and became missionary to 
the Indians of the Platte and upper Missouri in 1838. He 
was the first Catholic missionary in this territory, where he 
worked for thirty years. He was a man of keen insight 



54 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

into human nature, of rare judgment, and of sterling char- 
acter. He often greatly aided the government and the 
Indians in arriving at agreements when making treaties. 
The Indians, who almost 'idolized him, called him "Black 
Robe." He was highly respected by the fur traders and 
other whites with whom he came in contact and was greatly 
trusted by the government. Father DeSmet had ample 
faith in the future of the Nebraska plains and early proph- 
esied that homes, schools, hospitals, and cities would some 
day arise on them. He died in 1873 and is buried in St. 
Louis. ^ 

QUESTIONS — CHAPTER III 

1. Why was the Oregon Trail so named? 

2. Who were Lewis and Clark and what can you tell about them.'* 

3. What kind of a boat is a "keel boat" ? 

4. What can j-ou learn about Crook and McLellan? 

5. What can you tell about John Jacob Astor? 

6. Who was Robert Stuart and whv is he mentioned? 



^ See Chittenden and Richardson's Life, Letters and Travels of 
father DeSmet. 



CHAPTER IV 

Early Indian Travel. — There is as yet but little 
knowledge of prehistoric or Indian routes of travel in Ne- 
braska. The Indians do not seem to have had any fixed 
or definite routes. T. S. Huffaker, who came to Council 
Grove, Kansas, in 1846 as a missionary and teacher, makes 
the following statement : 

When I first came among the Indians, now more than 
half a century ago, there were at that time no well de- 
fined trails, but between the several bands of the same 
tribes there were plain beaten trails. Each band had 
a village of its own, and they continually visited each 
other. The dififerent tribes would change their location 
perpetually, and never remain in one location long enough 
to mark any well defined trails, in going from tribe to 
tribe. 

It is probable that the prehistoric routes were several 
miles in width, merely following the same general direction 
and not traveled sufficiently to form beaten trails. The 
stealth of the Indian naturally kept him from establishing 
a plainly defined road. However, in some places in Nebras- 
ka there are evidences of paths and roads made by pioneer 
white men. Later two well defined and important routes 
across the* plains country were established, namely, the 
Santa Fe Trail and the Oregon Trail, 

The Santa Fe Trail. — This road came into existence 
for travel between Missouri River points and the settle- 
ments of New Mexico. It was surveyed by the govern- 
ment probably in 1820, and the first wagon train passed over 
it in 1828. While it has little connection with the history 



56 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

of Nebraska, it furnished a story replete with Indian and 
other adventures and became the first means of opening 
communications with the American Southwest.^ 

The Oregon Trail. — This was the most notable route 
of its kind in the country. By 1843 it had become a well 
defined road for trade and other traffic between St. Louis 
and the mouth of the Columbia River. The general line 
of this trail had been used by the Indians from time imme- 
morial; not as to its whole length, but in parts here and 
there. The white man developed it into a continuous route. 

Starting Point of the Oregon Trail. — While St. Louis 
was the true eastern terminus of the route, the overland 
trail really began at Franklin, Missouri, two hundred and 
fifty miles above the mouth of the Missouri River. After 
some years Independence, situated near the mouth of the 
Kansas River, superseded Franklin as the starting point. 

When the river carried away the Independence landing, 
Westport, now within the boundaries of Kansas City, be- 
came the starting point. The first traffic by way of Frank- 
lin and Independence, which began about 1820, was with 
Santa Fe, and it is not possible to say when travel over the 
eastern end of the Oregon Trail began. 

The First Route to the Columbia. — The first travel 
to the Columbia was along the Missouri and Yellowstone 
rivers. The western end of the journey evidently followed 
what later became the Oregon Trail. Hunt's Astorian ex- 
pedition (1811) ascended the Missouri to the Arikara vil- 
lages, but followed the trail from the junction of the Port 
Nehf River with the Snake River. Hunt was probably the 
first white traveler over the western end of the route. There 
was no pathway to the Columbia River, and the Indians at 
the head waters of the Snake River were ignorant of any 

1 See Henry Inman's Old Santa Fc Trail. 



58 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

way to reach it. Stuart and Crooks on their return journey 
followed the general course of the Oregon Trail to Grand 
Island, Nebraska, with the exception of a detour in south- 
eastern Idaho. Bonneville passed over the cut-off from 
Independence to Grand Island, thus connecting the two ends 
of the route destined later to carry an immense travel across 
the continent. Bonneville's was the first wagon train over 
this end of the trail. 

Itinerary of the Trail. — A fairly accurate itinerary of 
the Oregon Trail is given in the notes of Fremont and other 
travelers as follows : From Independence for the distance 
of forty-one miles it is identical w'ith the Santa Fe Trail; 
from the junction to the Kansas River it is eighty-one miles; 
to the Big Blue River, one hundred and seventy- four miles ; 
to the Little Blue River, two hundred and forty-one miles ; 
to the head of the Little Blue River, two hundred and nine- 
ty-six miles ; to the Platte River, three hundred and sixteen 
miles ; to the lower ford of the South Platte River four 
hundred and thirty-three miles; to the upper ford of the 
South Platte River, four hundred and ninety-three miles : 
to Chimney Rock, five hundred and seventy-one miles ; to 
'Scotts Bluff, six hundred and sixteen miles. Adding the 
distance from the north w^est boundary of Nebraska to Fort 
Vancouver, the western terminus, makes a total of 2,020 
miles. 

The Course of the Trail. — The trail crossed the Ne- 
l)raska line about four miles w^est of the southwestern cor- 
ner of Jefferson County; it left the Little Blue River at a 
])end beyond this point, but returned to it again just 
beyond Hebron. It left this stream finally at a point near 
Leroy and reached the Platte River about twenty miles 
below the western end of Grand Island. Proceeding along 
the south Ijank of the Platte, it crossed the south fork about 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 59 

sixty miles from the junction, and touched the north fork 

at Ash Creek, twenty miles beyond the south fork crossing. 

Numbers of the Emigrants. — Travel by emigrants 

across the plains by the great trail to California and Oregon, 




Scenes at Ash Holeow 

chiefly the latter region, set in extensively in 1844. Francis 
Parkman, who left St. Louis in the spring of 1846 on a 
tour to the Rocky Mountains, came upon the old legitimate 
trail of the Oregon emigrants at the junction of the St. 
Joseph Trail. Bryant, another traveler in the West during 



60 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

that year, noticed many emigrants to Oregon and California 
over the trail. Bryant reports that his party met five men, 
who, in coming from Fort Laramie, had counted four hun- 
dred and seventy west-bound emigrant wagons. 

Ash Hollow. — In western Nebraska there were sev- 
eral clearly defined landmarks which served to hold the trail 
to definite lines. One of these landmarks was Ash Hollow, 
nineteen miles from the forks of the Platte. Stansbury has 
the following description of the crossing between the twO' 
forks and of Ash Hollow itself : 

To-day we crossed the ridge between the north and 
south forks of the Platte, a distance of eighteen and 
one-half miles. As we expected to find no water for the 
whole of the distance, the India rubber bap^s were filled 
with a small supply. The road struck directly up the 
bluff, rising quite rapidly at first, then very gradually 
for twelve miles, when we reached the summit, and a 
most magnificent view saluted the eye. Before and be- 
low us was the north fork of the Nebraska, winding 
its way through broken hills and green meadows. Behind 
us lay the undulating prairie rising gently from the 
south fork, over which we had just passed. On our 
right a gradual convergence of the two valleys was dis- 
tinctly perceptible; while immediately at our feet were 
the heads of Ash Creek which fell off suddenly into 
deep, precipitous chasms on either side, leaving only 
a high narrow ridge or backbone, which gradually de- 
scended until, towards its western termination, it fell off 
precipitately into the bottom of the creek. . . . The 
bottom of Ash Creek is tolerably well wooded, princi- 
pally with ash and some dwarf cedars. The bed of the 
stream was entirely dry, but towards the mouth several 
springs of delightfully cool and refreshing water were 
found, altogether the best that has been met with since 
leaving Missouri. We encamped at the mouth of the 
valley, here called "Ash PIollow." 

Court House Rock. — The next noticeable landmark 



62 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

on the trail was Court House Rock, so named by emigrants 
from St. Louis because of a fancied resemblance to a well 
known structure in their own city. It was some distance 
south of the road and the Platte. When Samuel Parker, 
the missionary, traveling on the opposite or north side of 
the river, passed Court House Rock in 1835, it was evidently 
unnamed, for he spoke of it as "a great natural curiosity 
which for the sake of a name I shall call the old castle." Par- 
ker described this formation as more than fifty feet high and 
covering more than an acre of ground. Bryant in 1846 
went about seven miles towards it from the road and de- 
scribes it as from three to five hundred feet high and about 
a mile in circumference. 

Chimney Rock. — Captain Bonneville describes this 
next natural wonder as follows : '*It is called The Chim- 
ney. The lower part is a conical mound, rising out of the 
naked plain ; from the summit shoots up a shaft or column 
about one hundred twenty feet in height, from which it de- 
rived its name. . . . It is a compound of clay, with al- 
ternate layers of red and white sand stone, and may be seen 
at a distance of upwards of thirty miles." According to 
Bonneville's authority the total height of the formation 
was more than one hundred and seventy-five yards. Fre- 
mont and Palmer each described it and estimated its height. 
This peculiar formation stood as a silent monument mark- 
ing the way for early travelers. 

Scotts Bluff. — The bluff is situated on the south side 
of the Platte, about three-quarters of a mile from the bank. 
It rises about eight hundred feet above the river and com- 
mands the valley for many miles in each direction. Scotts 
Bluff derives its name from a trapper, who, with five or six 
others, was returning by boat to the settlements. Scott 
became ill and was deserted by his companions, who re- 




Engraving from photograph by John Wright. 

Chimney Rock 



64 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

ported that he had died and had been buried along the bank 
of the river. After being deserted, he traveled about sixty 
miles to the bluff and perished there. Papers and clothing 
found upon the body furnish unmistakable evidence of his 
identity. Scott's name is also perpetuated in that of Scotts 
Bluff County. 

Travel on the Oregon Trail. — The greatest volume of 
travel passed over the trail during the years between 1832 
and 1860. Thousands upon thousands of people during 
each summer season journeyed along this noted highway 
toward the Great West so rich with furs, gold, and other 
valuables. The travelers formed really a moving com- 
munity in which occurred births, weddings, funerals, re- 
ligious services, and other interesting events. During a 
part of this time the government maintained well equipped 
wagon trains over this route. Father DeSmet tells us 
that each train .consisted of twenty-six wagons, each wagon 
drawn by six yoke of oxen. These trains sometimes made a 
continuous line fifty miles long. The wagons were manned 
like ships at sea and each wagon had a captain who drove 
the six yoke of oxen. Thus each train had twenty-six 
captains and three hundred and twelve oxen, all under com- 
mand of a master wagoner. 

Interesting Notes on the Oregon Trail. — Joel Parker, 
an early traveler, thus described camping on the trail: 

The manner of our encamping is to form a large hol- 
low square, encompassing an area of about an acre hav- 
ing the river on one side; three wagons forming a part 
of another side, coming down to the river; and three 
more in the same manner on the opposite side; and the 
packages so arranged in parcels, about three rods apart, 
as to fill up the rear and the sides not occupied by the 
wagons. The horses and mules, near the middle of the 
day, are turned out under guard to feed for two hours, 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 



65 



and the same again towards night, until after sun- 
set, when they are taken up and brought within the hol- 
low square, and fastened with ropes twelve feet long 
to pickets driven firmly in the ground. The men are 




Engravivg from photograph by John Wright. 

ScoTTs Br,uFP AND Vicinity 



divided into companies, stationed at the several parcels 
of goods and wagons, where they wrap themselves in 
their blankets and rest for the night. The whole, how- 
ever, are formed into six divisions to keep guard, re- 
lieving each other every two hours. This is to prevent 



66 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

hostile Indians from falling upon us by surprise or com- 
ing into the tent by stealth and taking away either horses 
or packages of goods. 

The History of the American Fur Trade ^ contains the fol- 
lowing description of the Oregon Trail : 

This wonderful highway was in the broadest sense a 
national road, although not surveyed or built under the 
auspices of the government. Only on the steppes of 
Siberia can so long a highway be found over which traffic 
has moved by a continuous journey from one end to the 
other. Even in Siberia there are occasional settlements 
along the route, but on the Oregon Trail, in 1843, the 
traveler saw no evidence of civilized habitation except 
four trading posts, between Independence and Fort Van- 
couver. 

As a highway of travel the Oregon Trail is the most 
remarkable known in history. Considering the fact that 
it originated with the spontaneous use of travelers; that 
no level established its grades ; that no transit ever located 
a foot of it ; that no engineer sought out the fords or 
built any bridges or surveyed the mountain passes ; that 
there was no grading to speak of or any attempt at 
metalling the road-bed; and the general good quality of 
this two thousand miles of highway will seem most extra- 
ordinary. Father DeSmet, who was born in Belgium, 
the home of good roads, pronounced the Oregon Trail 
one of the finest highways in the world. At the proper 
season of the year this is undoubtedly true. Before the 
prairies became too dry, the natural turf formed the best 
roadway for horses to travel on that has probably ever 
been known. It was amply hard to sustain traffic, yet 
soft enough to be easier to the feet than even the most 
perfect asphalt pavement. Over such roads, winding rib- 
bon-like through the verdant prairies, amid the profusion 
of spring flowers, with grass so plentiful that the ani- 
mals reveled in its abundance, and game everywhere 
greeting the hunter's rifle, and finally, with pure water in 
1 Vol. I., pp. 460-463. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 67 

the streams, the traveler sped on his way with a feeling 
of joy and exhilaration. But not so when the prairies 
became dry and parched, the road filled with stifling dust, 
the stream beds mere dry ravines, or carrying only alka- 
line water which could not be used, the game all gone to 
more hospitable sections, and the summer sun pouring 
down its heat with torrid intensity. It was then that 
the trail became a highway of desolation, strewn with 
abandoned property, the skeletons of horses, mules, and 
oxen, and, alas, too often, with freshly made mounds 
and head boards that told the pitiful tale of suffenngs 
too great to be endured. If the trail was the scene of 
romance, adventure, pleasure, and excitement, so it was 
marked in every mile of its course by human misery, 
tragedy, and death. 

The immense travel which in later years passed over 
the trail carved it into a deep furrow, often with several 
parallel tracks making a total width of a hundred feet 
or more. It was an astonishing spectacle even to white 
men when seen for the first time. 

It may be easily imagined how great an impression the 
sight of this road must have made upon the minds of 
the Indians. Father DeSmet has recorded some inter- 
esting observations on this point. 

In 1851 he traveled in company with a large number 
of Indians from the Missouri and Yellowstone rivers to 
Fort Laramie, where a great council was held in that 
year to form treaties with several tribes. Most of these 
Irtdians had not been in that section before, and were 
quite unprepared for what they saw. "Our Indian com- 
panions," says Father DeSmet, "who had never seen 
but the narrow hunting paths by which they transport 
themselves and their lodges, were filled with admiration 
on seeing this noble highway, which is as smooth as a 
barn floor swept by the winds, and not a blade of grass 
can shoot up on it on account of the continual passing. 
They conceived a high idea of the countless White Na- 
tion, as they expressed it. They fancied that all had gone 
over that road and that an immense void must exist in 
the land of the rising sun. Their countenances testified 



68 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

evident incredulity when I told them that their exit 
was in no-wise perceived in the land of the whites. They 
styled the route the Great Medicine Road of the Whites." 

Over much of its length the trail is now abandoned, 
but in many places it is not yet effaced from the soil and 
may not be for centuries. There are few more impres- 
sive sights than portions of this old highway today. It 
still lies there upon the prairie, deserted by the traveler, 
an everlasting memorial of the human tide which once 
filled it to overflowing. Nature herself has helped to per- 
petuate this memorial, for the prairie winds, year by year, 
carve the furrow more deeply, and the wild sun-flower 
blossoms along its course, as if in silent memory of those 
who sank beneath its burdens. . . . 

Railroads practically follow the old line from Independ- 
ence to Casper, Wyoming, some fifty miles east of In- 
dependence Rock ; and from Bear River on the Utah- 
Wyoming line to the mouth of the Columbia. The time 
is not distant when the intermediate space will be occu- 
pied, and possibly a continuous and unbroken move- 
ment of trains over the entire line may some day fol- 
low. In a future still more remote there may be realized 
a project, which is even now being agitated, of building 
a magnificent national road along this line as a memorial 
highway which shall serve the future and commemorate 
the past. 

The Mormons and Their Trail Through Nebraska, — 
The Latter Day Saints, commonly called Mormons, orig- 
inated in New York in 1830. They taught certain peculiar 
religious beliefs, among which was polygamy. Largely 
on account of the practice of the latter, the Mormons were 
driven westward by their neighbors. They traveled by 
stages and in 1846 arrived at the Missouri River nearly 
opposite the present city of Omaha. The first company 
consisted of several hundred people, who built a ferry with 
which to cross the river. Though all the country west of the 
Missouri was "Indian country" and white men at that time 







.5 W 

I ^ 

^ < 



70 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

were forbidden to enter it, these determined Mormons went 
forward. By the close of 1846 there were about 12,000 
of these people on both sides of the Missouri River. 

The Mormons built a village of 538 log houses' and 83 
sod houses on the site of where Florence, a suburb of 
Omaha, now stands. They also erected a flourishing mill 
costing about $8,000, established schools, and set up a Mor- 
mon church. The settlement received the name Winter 
Quarters. About this time five companies of the Mormon 
men enlisted in the United States army to serve in the Mex- 
ican War. The money they received was used to help sus- 
tain the village of Winter Quarters, as there had been severe 
want during the sickly winter, and a malarial epidemic had 
caused the death of about 600 people. 

In April, 1847, the first band of Mormons started west- 
ward to find a home beyond the mountains where they could 
not be molested in their religious teachings and practices. 
Included in this caravan and the ones following it during the 
next two years were several thousand people, hundreds of 
wagons, and a few thousand cattle. The Mormons devel- 
oped a trail along the north side of the Platte River through- 
out the entire length of the state, from Florence to the 
northwest corner of Scotts Blufif County. While this trail 
was the main one used by the Mormons, they also followed 
other trails through Nebraska, including the Oregon Trail. 
These trails they marked by distributing sun-flower seed, 
so that the growing plants would show the way to those 
who came after them. They settled in the valley of the 
Great Salt Lake, Utah, and are to be credited with the 
pioneer development of that country.^ 

1 It should be noted that man}^ of the Latter Day Saints did not 
believe in polygamy. Those who refused to practice it remained in 
Nebraska and other states farther east. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 71 

The Overland Mail. — The discovery of gold in Cali- 
fornia and the founding of the great Mormon settlement 
at Salt Lake City led the Federal government to establish 
the "Overland Mail." The first contract was let in 1850 to 
Samuel H. Woodston, of Independence, Missouri. The 
service was monthly, and the distance between terminal 
points, Independence and Salt Lake City, was twelve hun- 
dred miles. The mail route was soon extended to Sacra- 
mento, California. The service was by stage coach, and the 
route was substantially the same as the Oregon Trail as far 
as the Rocky Mountains. Foit Kearny, Fort Laramie, 
and Fort Bridger were important points along the route. 
In 1857 a weekly mail service began. 

Russell, Majors, and Waddell. — The contract for 
carrying the mails was secured in 1859 by Russell, Majors, 
and Waddell. This firm soon became the most extensive 
freighters in Nebraska. They changed their river head- 
quarters from Leavenworth to Nebraska City. The firm's 
records disclose that over eight thousand tons of supplies 
were carried from Nebraska City and Leavenworth to Salt 
Lake City in 1858, requiring over three thousand five hun- 
dred wagons and twelve thousand ox teams to transport 
them. This firm also controlled the Leavenworth and 
Pike's Peak Express. After taking the mail contract, the 
two stage lines were consolidated under the name of the 
Central Overland California and Pike's Peak Express. 

Through Mail to the Pacific. — The first through mail 
to the Pacific coast was opened by the post office depart- 
ment September 15, 1858, and ran from St. Louis through 
Texas via Fort Yuma to San Francisco; it was operated 
principally by John Butterfield. The opening of this new 
route was made necessary by the deep snows which inter- 
fered with the use of the northern route in winter. The 



72 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

trips were made semi-weekly with Concord coaches drawn 
by four or six horses ; the schedule time was twenty-five 
days. 

Renewed Use of the Northern Route. — The outbreak 
of the Civil War caused the southern route to be aban- 




One Type of the Famous Concord Stage-coach 



doned. A daily mail was then established over the north- 
ern route. The first through daily coaches on the line left 
St. Joseph, Missouri, and Placerville, California, July 1, 
1861, the trip occupying a little over seventeen days. The 
Concord coaches used on this, the greatest stage line ever 
operated, accommodated nine passengers inside, and often 
one or two sat with the driver. Sometimes an extra seat 
was made outside just back of the driver. • As many as 
fifteen passengers might travel in and on a coach. Until 
1863 the passenger fare was $75 from Atchison to Den- 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 73 

ver; $150 to Salt Lake City, and $225 to Placerville, Cal- 
ifornia. The fare was subsequently increased when the 
currency of the country became inflated. 

Benjamin Holladay. — The transportation magnate of 
his day was Benjamin Holladay. A native of Kentucky, 
he came at an early age to western Missouri and entered 
business. During the Mexican War Holladay obtained con- 
tracts for furnishing provisions for Colonel Doniphan's 
regiment. At the close of the war he was known as a busi- 
ness man of wealth and prominence. In 1865 he obtained 
contracts for carrying mail from Nebraska City and Omaha 
to Kearney City. In the early 'sixties he purchased from 
Majors, Russell, and Waddell the Pony Express line, then 
running to Salt Lake City. This merged into a stage route 
with the finest line of coaches ever run in America. It 
made fast schedule time from Atchison, Kansas, to San 
Francisco, passing through Nebraska over the Oregon Trail 
and covering the two thousand miles in seventeen days. 

The Pony Express. — In 1854 Senator W. M. Gwin, of 
California, rode to Washington on horseback. B. F. Fick- 
lin, superintendent of the firm of Russell, Majors, and Wad- 
dell, was his traveling companion during a part of the jour- 
ney. The idea of the pony express grew out of this trip. 
Senator Gwin introduced a bill to establish a weekly mail 
on the pony express plan. The bill failed, but through the 
efforts of Gwin the express was established by Russell as 
a private enterprise. It began operation between St. Jo- 
seph and Sacramento in 1860. Financial aid w^as not given 
by the government, although it gave a million dollar sub- 
sidy to the slower daily mail which superseded the pony 
express. Ordinary letters were carried by the slower 
service. The original charge by pony express for each 
letter of one-half ounce was five dollars, but this was later 



74 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

reduced to two dollars and fifty cents. This sum was in 
addition to the regular charge for postage. 

Operation of the Pony Express. — The Pony Express 
ran regularly each week ^ from April 3, 1860. It carried 
letter mail only, and passed through Forts Kearny, Lar- 
amie, and,Bridger, Salt Lake City, Camp Floyd, Carson 
City, the Washoe silver mines, Placerville, and Sacramento. 
The letter mail was delivered in San Francisco within ten 
days of the departure of the; express. In Nebraska the 
express followed the line of the Oregon Trail. Telegraph 
dispatches were delivered in San Francisco in eight days 
after leaving St. Joseph, the western terminus of the tele- 
graph line. A copy of President Lincoln's First Inaugural 
Address went from St. Joseph to Sacramento, approxi- 
mately two thousand miles, in seven days and seventeen 
hours. 

W. H. Russell, president of the Central Overland Cali- 
fornia and Pike's Peak Express Company, was the magnate 
of this enterprise. About five hundred of the fleetest 
horses were used; there were one hundred and ninety sta- 
tions distributed along the route from nine to fifteen miles 
apart. Each of the eighty riders covered three stations or 
an aggregate of about thirty-three miles, mounting a fresh 
horse at each station. The maximum weight of letters car- 
ried was twenty pounds. 

Hazards of the Trip. — Sure footed and tough western 
horses were used on the mountain stages. Pleat and alkali 
in summer, snow and torrential streams in winter, and hos- 
tile Indians the year round made these trips exceedingly 
difficult and hazardous. Armed men on bronchos were 
stationed at regular intervals along a large part of the trail 

^ The express later made semi-weekly trips under a contract auth- 
orized by act of Congress of March 2, 1861. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 1^ 

to protect the riders from Indians. Of a necessity these 
riders were distinguished for remarkable endurance and 
courage; many of them afterwards became famous as hunt- 
ers and Indian fighters of the great plains. 

Route of William F. Cody. — Colonel William F. Cody, 
who afterward became a distinguished citizen of Nebraska 
and who owned ''Scout's Rest Ranch," near North Platte, 
was one of these riders. He covered the route between 
Red Buttes, Wyoming, and Three Crossings on the Sweet- 
water River. This was a distance of about seventy-six 
miles — one of the most difficult and dangerous stages on 
the whole road. Sometimes in an emergency Cody con- 
tinued his trip to Rocky Ridge, a distance of eighty-five 
miles, and then back to the starting place. Red Buttes, 
covering the whole distance of three hundred and twenty- 
two miles without rest and making not less than fifteen 
miles an hour.^ 

The Pony Express a Financial Loss. — The Pony Ex- 
press, after being operated for about eighteen months, was 
superseded by the telegraph. It proved a financial failure 
and entailed a loss of more than two hundred thousand 
dollars to those who operated it. The loss was probably due 
to the enormous number of men, horses, and equipment re- 
quired to keep it going and to the fact that the field of oper- 
ation was necessarily so far from the management and base 
of supplies. Considering its remarkable speed, so nearly 
approximating that of a railroad train, the pony express is 
one of the most interesting and picturesque enterprises on 
record. 

The First Telegraph Company. — The Missouri and 
Western Telegraph Company completed the first telegraph 

1 See Last of the, Great Scouts (William F. Cody, "Buffalo Bill") 
by Helen Cody Wetmore, his sister, and Zane Grey. 



76 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

line from Brownville by way of Omaha to Fort Kearny 
in November, 1860, where the store room of Moses H. 
Sydenham was used for the first office.^ The Hne continued 
on from this place to Salt Lake City, where it met the line 
coming east from San Francisco. 

gUKSTlONS CIIAPTKR IV 

1. What is the distinction between emigrants and immigrants? 

2. Why was the "Pony Express" so called? 

3. What can yon find out about Brownville and its history? 

4. Who was Tecumseh and what can you learn about him? 

5. How is the name of General Leavenworth kept in the minds 
of the people? 



1 The tek'graph Hnc from St. Joseph to Brownville was completed 
in August, 1860. 



CHAPTER V 

The Missouri River Traffic. — Though there was some 
steamboat traffic on the lower Missouri River before 1830, it 
was not until that year that the American Fur Company, un- 
der the control of John Jacob Astor and his son, William B. 
Astor, began to make ready for the regular navigation of 
the upper river/ The company built the steamer Yellow- 
stone, so named probably because its objective was the 
mouth of the Yellowstone River, near the western boundary 
of North Dakota. On the first trip, in 1831, the boat 
did not go farther than Fort Tecumseh, opposite the present 
site of Pierre, South Dakota. In 1832 the Yellozvstone 
reached Fort Union and demonstrated the practicability of 
upper river navigation. Fort Benton, in central Montana, 
marked the head of navigation on the Missouri. The coming 
of the railroad into the upper Missouri region cut off the 
river traffic. The Northern Pacific reached Bismarck in 1873 ; 
the Northwestern reached Pierre in 1880 and Chamberlain 
in 1881. River transportation for freight and passengers was 
carried on for more than forty years. It is probable that the 
last trip from St. Louis to Fort Benton was made in 1865. 
This means of reaching the vast interior of the great plains 
proved to be of inestimable value in settling Nebraska. The 
navigation of the Missouri, however, was always attended 
with considerable difficulty, owing to the shifting sand 
bars which continually changed the channel. 

Keel Boats. — Until the introduction of steamboats, 

^ Captain Chittenden's Early Navigation on the Missouri River is 
interesting reading in this connection. 

77 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 79 

the traffic of the fur traders was carried on in keel boats. 
They were from sixty to seventy feet long, and, with the 
exception of ahout twelve feet at either end, were occupied 
by an inclosed apartment in the shape of a long box con- 
taining the cargo. The boats were ordinarily propelled by a 
cordelle, a rope about three hundred yards long, one end 
of which was attached to the boat while the other was in the 
hands of twenty to forty men who traveled along the shore 
of the stream and hauled the boat after them. Sometimes 
when the wind was favorable, sails were used. Poles 
and oars were brought into use in emergencies. It is not 
strange that with this laborious means of reaching the inter- 
ior a journey by keel boat from St. Louis to the upper river 
should require four to six months. 

Mackinaw Boats. — The mackinaw was propelled by 
four oarsmen and was used only on down-stream trips. 
It was somewhat smaller than the keel boat and of a tem- 
porary nature. The fame of the bull-boat,^ which was used 
on the shallow tributaries of the Missouri, was built of 
willow saplings lashed together with rawhide and covered 
with the skins of buffaloes. This craft was buoyant and 
flexible and well adapted to the sandy shallows of the 
Platte and other smaller rivers. 

The Cargoes. — Boats passing up the river were in- 
spected rigidly to see that they had not on board intoxicating 
liquors, which it was unlawful to carry into the "Indian 
country." Smuggling was not infrequent, and nearly every 
cargo had a generous supply of liquor secreted somewhere 
on board. The cargoes of the boats in the earlier river 
navigation consisted of merchandise for Indian trading, out- 
fits for trappers and hunters, stores for the military 
posts, and, in addition, passengers. 

^ See page 49 for Fremont's description of a bull-boat. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 81 

Captain Joseph La Barge. — The principal figure 
among the early steamboat captains who frequented the 
Missouri River was Joseph La Barge. To the captains and 
pilots of his day he was what Kit Carson and^Buffalo Bill" 
were to the plainsmen. Born in 1815 of a French-Canadian 
father and a Spanish-French mother, he entered the service 
of the American Fur Company at the age of seventeen. 
In the spring of 1833 he conducted a fleet of mackinaw boats 
from the upper waters of the Missouri to St. Louis. In 1834 
he was in the employ of Peter A. Sarpy. Soon after this 
he began his career of more than forty years as captain and 
pilot of various steamboats on the Missouri River. He died 
in 1899 at St. Louis. 

Volume of River Traffic. — The records of those early 
days show that in 1858 there were fifty-nine steamboats on 
the lower Missouri. During that year there were three hun- 
dred and six steamboat arrivals at the port of Leavenworth, 
and the freight charges collected amounted to $166,941.35. 
It is said that in 1859 more vessels left St. Louis for the 
Missouri River than for both the upper and lower Missis- 
sippi. In 1857 there were twenty-eight steamboat arrivals 
at Sioux City before July 1. Sioux City was then a mere 
village. There were twenty-three regular boats on that part 
of the river, and their freight tonnage for the season was 
valued at $1,250,000. The period covered between 1855 
and 1860 was the most important in the history of the 
Missouri River traffic. It was just before the coming 
of the railroads. 

Idea of Navigating the Platte. — Those who are fa- 
miliar with the Platte look with considerable interest upon 
the early attempt to improve that river for navigation pur- 
poses. The territorial legislature memorialized Congress to 
grant John A. Latta of Plattsmouth twenty thousand acres 



82 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

of land in the Platte Valley on condition that, before Octo- 
ber 1,1861, he "shall place on said river a good and sub- 
stantial steamboat and run the same between the mouth of 
the said Platte River and Fort Kearny and do all the ne- 
cessary dredging, knowing there is a sufficient volume of 
water in said river, which is a thousand miles in length." 
A Nebraska City paper published a statement that "the 
little boat built for the purpose of navigating the Platte 
passed here on Sunday morning. It was a little one-horse 
aiTair and will not, in our opinion amount to much. If the 
Platte River is to be rendered navigable, and we believe it 
can, it requires a boat sufficiently large to slash around and 
stir up the sand, that a channel may be formed by wash- 
ing." These early pioneers do not seem to have fully com- 
prehended the difficulties of navigation to be encountered in 
the shallow waters and shifting sands of the Platte. 

The Steam Wagon. — It is interesting to note the 
struggle made by early men of the territory to find a more 
suitable means of transportation. The Scientific American 
in August, 1862, copied from the Nebraska City News an 
account of a trial trip of a steam wagon which had started 
for Denver "drawing three road wagons containing five 
tons of freight, two cords of wood, and crowded with ex- 
cited citizens." This article goes on to relate that there 
were five regular stage routes between the Missouri River 
and the west, all of which centered at Fort Kearny, and 
that the stage fare for a single passenger from Nebraska 
City to Denver was $75 ; the time taken for the trip was 
one week, traveling night and day. "The citizens of Ne- 
braska, in view of these facts, have regarded the intro- 
duction of the steam wagon with enthusiasm as a 
great improvement upon the slow and expensive 
system of animal teaming on the prairie road." The 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 83 

steam wagon met with an accident about twelve mfles out 
of Nebraska City. The trip was finally abandoned at this 
point. 

Territorial Roads. — Since Nebraska was in fact and 
in law exclusively "Indian country" prior to the time of its 
organization as a territory (1854), it had no roads except 
such as had been selected in the natural course of travel, 
and no bridges except those which had been built voluntarily 
at otherwise impassable crossings. The first travelers of 
necessity forded the smaller streams and sometimes made 
circuitous routes in order to find suitable fords. The first 
appropriation for a highway within the present limits of 
Nebraska was made by an act of Congress February 17, 
1855, which authorized the construction of "a territorial 
road from a point on the Missouri River, opposite the city of 
Council Bluffs, in the territory of Nebraska, to New Fort 
Kearny in said territory." 

On the 3rd of March, 1857, Congress appropriated $30,- 
000 ''for the construction of a road from the Platte River 
via the Omaha reserve and Dakota City to the Running 
Water River," under the direction of the Secretary of the 
Interior. George L. Sites, who seems to have been placed 
in charge of the construction of this road, was sent out to 
examine the route and report on the means of expending 
the funds. He reported that it was not the intention to 
build a road thoroughly graded and bridged, but to meet 
the immediate demands of the settlers in that region, and 
that the sum appropriated was sufficient for this purpose. 
In February, 1855, Congress appropriated $30,000 "for a 
military road from the Great Falls ^ of the Missouri River 
in the territory of Nebraska ^ to intersect the military road 

1 In what is now Montana. 

2 Note the map on page 80 for the extent of Nebraska at this 
date. 



84 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 



now established leading from Walla Walla, Washington, 
to Puget Sound," and in 1856, $50,000 "for the construction 
of a road from Fort Ridgely, in the territory of Minnesota, 
to the South Pass of the Rocky Mountains in the territory 
of Nebraska." In March, 1865, an appropriation of $50,000 
was made for the construction of a wagon road from the 




A Skirmish with Indians whii.e liuii^DiNG the Union Pacific 

Railroad 



mouth of the Turtle Hill River to Omaha, and from the same 
point to Virginia City, Montana. The main purpose of 
these roads was national ; that is, to provide for the transpor- 
tation of troops and supplies into the country. Encourage- 
ment and accommodation of local settlements was a sec- 
ondary matter. 

Building of the Union Pacific Railroad. — The build- 
ing of a railroad connecting the east and the west was in 
the minds of many long before the project was really under- 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 85 

taken, but such an immense enterprise could not succeed 
without the financial support of the government. Many a 
traveler on his way toward the setting sun contemplated the 
great Platte Valley as a natural highway, and no doubt had 
visions of a steam railroad which would shorten the toilsome 
journey across the continent. It is not strange that so nat- 
ural a development should be in the minds of many men at 
the same time, and that the building of the Union Pacific 
Railroad should be in the minds of many simultaneously. 
General Leavenworth, the commanding officer at Council 
Bluffs, in 1825 made an elaborate report urging a Pacific 
railroad for military purposes. General Fremont, when he 
explored the great mountain pass at the head of the Platte 
Valley, wrote : "This will one day be the route of a railroad 
that will span the continent from ocean to ocean." Within 
two years of the introduction of the steam railroad into 
America, a journal published at Ann Arbor, Michigan, 
proposed a Pacific railroad. John Plumbe, a civil en- 
gineer, called the first public meeting at Dubuque, Iowa, 
to promote the project. General Curtis, in 1839, drew 
up a petition and secured signers and forwarded the pe- 
tition to John Quincy Adams, who presented it to the 
House of Representatives with recommendations. The 
pioneers of Nebraska realized what such a project would 
mean and actually promoted a Pacific railroad. This 
statement is attested by a notable memorial to Congress, 
adopted at a mass meeting held in Omaha January 29, 1859. 
Asa Whitney's Proposition to Build a Pacific Rail- 
road. — Asa Whitney, a merchant of New York, en- 
gaged in trade with China, made the first definite proposition 
for the building of a Pacific railroad. His first memorial 
to Congress on the subject was presented in 1845. In the 
third memorial piresented in March, 1848, he proposed to 




•■"^.■i- '■'-•' 



* 






SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 87 

build a road from Lake Michigan to the Pacific coast, an 
estimated distance of 2,030 miles, on condition that the 
United States would sell him a strip of land sixty miles wide 
along the line at sixteen cents an acre. These lands, or the 
proceeds from their sale, were to be reserved to keep the 
railroad in operation and repair until it became self-sup- 




Thomas C. Durant 
Chief promoter, Union Pacific Railroad 

porting, and the remainder was then to revert to the 
builder of the railroad. Whitney estimated that only the 
first eight hundred miles of the grant of land would be 
valuable. He calculated the cost of the road at $60,000,000. 
Project Approved by the Congressional Committee. — 
The committee on roads and canals of the House' of Rep- 
resentatives submitted a report on this memorial in March, 
1850. They approved the project for the following reasons : 
That it would cement the commercial, social, and po- 
litical relations of the east and the west; would 



88 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

be a highway for the commerce of Europe and Asia 
to the great advantage of this country ; would tend to secure 
the peace of the world; and would transfer to the United 
States a part of the commercial importance of Great Britain. 
The committee preferred Whitney's plan to that of any 
others which had been submitted, as it was purely a private 
enterprise in which the government would be in no way 
entangled. Bills embodying Whitney's proposition were in- 
troduced into both houses in 1850, but no vote was taken. 
The building of a Pacific railroad became a question of im- 
portance from this time until the final passage of the bill 
which authorized the building of the road. 

The Act of 1862. — By Congressional action in 1862 a 
subsidy of alternate sections in a strip of land ten miles 
wide on each side of the track was granted to the Union 
Pacific Railroad. In addition to this subsidy the credit of 
the United States in the form of United States bonds was 
loaned in the following amounts : For the parts of the line 
passing over level country, east of the Rocky Mountains 
and west of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, $16,000 per 
mile; for the one hundred and fifty miles west of the eastern 
base of the Rocky Mountains and the like distance eastward 
from the western base of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, 
$48,000 per mile ; and for that part of the line running over 
the plateau region between these two mountain chains, 
$32,000 per mile. These bonds ran for thirty years^and drew 
six per cent interest, payable semi-annually. They consti- 
tuted a loan of credit and were to be repaid by the railroad 
company to the United States at their maturity.^ 

Organization of the Company. — The capital stock of 

the company consisted of $100,000,000 divided into shares 

1 Grenville M. Dodge and Thomas C. Durant are possibly the 
two men who, more than all others, overcame the tremendous diffi- 
culties encountered in completing this enterprise. 




Grenvii.i,e M. Dodge 

Major-general U. S. army, member of Congress, and construction 
engineer Union Pacific railroad. 



90 SCHOOL HISTORY OF xNEBRASKA 

of $1,000 each. When two thousand shares were subscribed 
and $10.00 per share paid, the company was to organize by 
the election of not less than thirteen directors and the usual 
officers. Two additional directors were to be appointed by 
the President of the United States. The President was also 
to appoint three commissioners to pass upon and certify to 
the construction of the road, as a basis for the issue of the 
government bonds and transfer of the lands. The line was 
to begin at a point on the 100th meridian, near Cozad, Ne- 
braska, between the south margin of the valley of the Re- 
publican River and the north margin of the valley of the 
Platte River. 

The company was also to construct a line from a point to 
be fixed by the President of the United States, to connect 
with the initial point on the 100th meridian.^ 

The Terms Changed by Act of 1864. — Through Con- 
gressional action in 1864 the company was permitted to 
mortgage the road to an amount equal to the loan of the 
United States bonds, and the lien or security of these bonds 
was thus made second to the authorized mortgage ; the land 
grant was doubled (from Omaha to Ogden, Utah, it amount- 
ed to more than 11,400,000 acres) ; and the reservation in 
the first act of coal and iron lands from the grant was given 
up. The number of directors to be elected was increased to 
fifteen, and the number of the government directors to five. 

The Act of 1866. — The provisions of this Congres- 
sional act fixed the Union Pacific as the main line ; and thus 
finally was settled a struggle for supremacy between par- 
tisans of the northern and southern routes to the Pacific 
which had been in controversy for twenty years. - 

1 Council Bluffs was selected as this point by President Lincoln. 

2 The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad was later built over 
the old route of the Santa Fe Trail. 




I 8 

-^ s 

'^ on 



92 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

The Platte Valley Route. — U'hile several meritorious 
routes from the Missouri River to the mountains were pro- 
posed, the Platte Valley in point of directness and uniform 
grade was by far the best ; and political influences and eco- 
nomic conditions just then particularly favored the northern 
route. Because of war conditions the South had little or 
no influence in Congress, and the country tributary to the 
southern route was demoralized where it was not actually 
devastated by war. On the other hand, Chicago was rap- 
idly gaining a prestige in commerce, and the Platte Valley 
road provided a direct line to the westward. Four great 
lines of railroad were pushing out from Chicago to the west 
and would reach the Missouri River at some point on the 
eastern boundary of Nebraska. It was expected that the 
Union Pacific would temporarily, at least, connect these four 
roads with the Pacific coast and would receive a large vol- 
ume of business from them.^ 

Breaking Ground. — December 2, 1863, when the first 
shovel of dirt was turned for the Union Pacific, was a jubi- 
lee day in Omaha. A. J. Hanscom,- a prominent citizen 
of Omaha, presided over the formal ceremonies. The 
shovels were manipulated by Alvin Saunders, governor of 
Nebraska, B. E. B. Kennedy, mayor of Omaha, and George 
Francis Train, one of the promoters of the road. The 
orator of the occasion was A. J. Poppleton, who later served 
as general attorney for the road. In his address he referred 
to Omaha as having four thousand people and predicted a 

1 The railroads did not stop long at the Missouri River but pushed 
westward through Nebraska as rivals to the Union Pacific. However, 
with the rapid agricultural development of the West, there has re- 
sulted a volume of freight and passenger traffic that taxes the oper- 
ating capacity of all of them. 

2 Hanscom Park was presented to the city of Omaha by A. J. 
Hanscom and S. A. Megath and named for the former. Experts 
pronounce it to be one of the most beautiful parks in the United 
States. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 93 

great future. Congratulatory telegrams were received from 
many noted people, among them being President Lincoln, 
Opdyke, mayor of Nfew York, Seward, secretary of state, 
and Brigham Young of Salt Lake City. 

Progress of the Road. — The road was completed to 
the 100th meridian October 5, 1866, and by August 16, 1867, 
188 miles more were completed, thus carrying the work to 
within thirty-seven miles of the western boundary of Ne- 
braska. The remaining 667 miles to the meeting at Promon- 
tory, Utah, were finished May 10, 1869. At this point the 
Union Pacific met the Central Pacific, which was started 
July 10, 1865, at the Omaha end and was the first track 
laid in Nebraska. 

Many difficulties had to be overcome in the construction 
of this road. Money was hard to obtain for large enter- 
prises in those early days. Capitalists were unwilling to in- 
vest large sums in an undeveloped country. Men and sup- 
plies had to be brought overland two hundred miles from the 
nearest railroad terminus east of Omaha or transported up 
the Missouri River by boat. After the laborers were brought 
to Nebrska, they often deserted and went prospecting for 
gold in the Rocky Mountains. Ties and heavy timbers had 
to be brought to the treeless prairie from far up and down 
the Missouri. Mountains and deserts had to be crossed. 
Water was lacking, especially in the alkali sections. Foun- 
dries and machine shops, as well as all other conveniences 
of a settled country, did not exist. Finally the Indians, 
jealous of this invasion of their country, impeded the pro- 
gress of the surveyors and other laborers. It was neces- 
sary to keep soldiers with all advance parties. Even then 
Indian attacks and thefts of supplies were sometimes suc- 
cessful. The construction trains, however, were amply 
supplied with rifles and other arms, and it was boasted that 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 



95 



a gang of track-layers could be changed into a battalion of 
infantry in a moment.^ 

The railroad was at length completed in 1869, and thus 
West and East became one and undivided.^ 

The Burlington and Missouri River Railroad. — The 
amendatory Union Pacific act of 1864 granted to the Bur- 




Union Pacific Overland Limited showing double tel\ck ^ 

lington and Missouri River Railroad Company, a corpor- 
ation organized under the laws of the state of Iowa, right 
of way two hundred feet wide and ten alternate sections of 
land per mile on each side of the railroad ''from the point 
where it strikes the Missouri River, south of the mouth of 

1 See Davis, The Union Pacific Raihuay, and White's History of 
the Union Pacific Raihvay. 

2 Owing to the great cost of the railroad, the passenger fare was 
fixed at ten cents per mile, but was reduced to seven and one-half 
cents per mile in September, 1869. 

3 The Union Pacific system is now double-track entirely across 
Nebraska. 



96 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

the Platte River, to some point not farther west than the 
100th meridan of west longitude, so as to connect by the 
most practical route with the main track of the Union Pa- 
cific Railroad, or that part of it which runs from Omaha to 
the said 100th meridian of west longitude." From that time 
forward the Burlington and Missouri River Railroad began 
a progressive program of road building until at the present 
time it is spread out like a fisherman's net over the entire 
South Platte country, and has in many places penetrated 
the region of the North Platte. 

It has always been the policy of this railroad to build 
numbers of feeders to the main line in the country through 
which it runs. This plan not only develops the territory 
and increases farm values, but is of great convenience to 
the inhabitants. The longest line enters Nebraska at Rulo 
in the southeastern corner and passes out at the northwest- 
ern corner. A traveler on a fast train on this line reaches 
Rulo about the middle of the afternoon, eats his evening 
meal on the dining car as he leaves Lincoln, retires as he 
reaches Grand Island, arises at six for breakfast as he leaves 
Crawford, and leaves the state a little later at Mansfield, 
having traveled a distance of five hundred and forty-seven 
miles. 

The Chicago and Northwestern Railroad. — The Chi- 
cago and Northwestern Railroad, which entered the state 
at Blair, has also pushed its lines into many sections and has 
thus become a factor in the development of the common- 
wealth. 

Other Railroads. — A number of other roads have en- 
tered to share the growing traffic, among them the Missouri 
Pacific and the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific, but none 
of them gained the territory and the prestige of the Union 
Pacific, the Chicago and Northwestern, and the Burlington 
and Missouri River railroads. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 97 

The Cattle Trail. — From 1865 to 1885 the ''cattle 
trail" from the gulf coast country in Texas to the succu- 
lent pastures of the north, and eventually to market, was 
in constant use. The mild climate of the south provided 
a suitable breeding place, while the rich pastures and tem- 
perate climate of the northern ranges not only produced a 
better quality of beef, but, also, it was estimated, added at 
least two hundred pounds to a four-year-old animal. Cattle- 
men were not slow to discover this advantage, and although 
the trail was at times infested with Indians,^ the adven- 
turous spirit of the cattlemen and the enormous profits led 
to the steady use of the trail. It is estimated that from 
8,000,000 to 10,000,000 cattle were brought over the trail. 
By starting the cattle on the fresh young grass of the 
southland, they were able to keep, most of the way, in the 
fresh young grass as the season advanced. 

Cattle Towns. — These were the points where the trans- 
continental railroads crossed the trail in the 'seventies into 
cattle markets and shipping points. These places became 
known as "cow towns" and in their palmy days were among 
the most striking features of the early life of the great 
plains country. They were well supplied with saloons and 
were the rendezvous of cattlemen and cowboys. Dodge 
City, Kansas, on the Santa Fe Railroad, and Ogallala, 
Nebraska, on the Union Pacific, were the two leading cow 
towns. It is estimated that in 1885 nearly 500,000 cattle 
were shipped from these two points.- 

1 The Indians often killed the drivers and stampeded the cattle. 
At times the government provided small guards of soldiers at the 
western posts. After the Custer Massacre in 1876, the Indians were 
more closely guarded b}^ the federal government and the great 
plains of the Dakotas and Montana were opened to the cattlemen. 
During the later years the cattle trail reached from Texas to Fort 
Benton, Montana. 

2 See Great Plains, by Randall Parish, for a description of the 
cowboys and cattle towns of this period. 



98 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

Development of the Ranch. — After 1885 the cattle 
trail began to decline in importance and gave way to the 
stationary ranches. These large ranches with thousands of 
head of cattle developed along the Republican, Platte, Loup, 
Dismal, and Niobrara rivers. The buffalo grass, which 
furnished such perfect feed in the summer season, when 
cured on the ground was equally good food in the winter. 
The cattle were branded and allowed to range at will until 
the annual round-up season when the young calves were 
branded and became a part of the herd. 

QUESTIONS — CHAPTERS V, VII, VIII, X 

1. Have we any territories now? If so, what are they? 

2. How many of the class have seen a stage coach of the kind 
mentioned in the text? 

3. What is probably the reason President Franklin Pierce ap- 
pointed a man (Burt) so far from Nebraska as South CaroHna to 
be ''Territorial Governor"? 

4. Let the class trace on their maps the route of Francis Burt 
from Pendleton, South Carolina, to Bellevue, Nebraska. 

5. When will another census be taken by the Federal Govern- 
ment? 

6. How often and in what way is the census taken? 

7. As we do not now have a county by the name of Forney 
what has become of it? 

8. What is meant by a memorial to Congress? 

9. What is the distinction between "the capital" and "the capitol"? 
10 What are bank charters? Why are they necessary? 

11. Why is the person who presides in the "House" called "Mr. 
Speaker" ? * 

12. What can you learn about James W. Woolworth? 

13 'What ar.e public lands? Are there any in your county? 

14. What can you learn about the life and character of Thomas 
A. Hendricks? 

15. How many of the class know how candles were made in the 
pioneer days. 

16. How was slavery introduced into the United States? 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 99 

17. About how many slaves were there in the United States at the 
time of the Civil War? 

18. Were there at any time persons held in slavery in Nebraska? 
If so, where and how many? 

19. How many nationalities are there in your county? 

20. What can you learn about Experience Estabrook? 

21. What are some of the duties of the auditor and the secretary 
of state? 

22. How are taxes for the support of the state government as- 
sessed? 

23. How is it determined how much tax each ought to pay? 

24. How does Nebraska compare in area and population with 
each state by which it is touched? 

25. Is there a natural curiosity in your county? If so, what is 
it and where is it? 



CHAPTER VI . 

Extent of Louisiana. — This vast territory embraced 
the whole western half of the Mississippi Valley as far as 
Texas. It had no very definite boundaries. The owners 
of Louisiana, together with the United States, controlled 
the navigation of the Mississippi River, a matter of great 
commercial importance aside from the intrinsic value of the 
territory itself. 

Conditions Leading to the Purchase. — The territory 
known as Louisiana originally belonged to Spain, but a 
treaty between Spain and France in 1800 transferred the 
title to France. As a result of this transaction citizens of 
the United States encountered difficulties in the control of 
river navigation at New Orleans and appealed to President 
Jefferson for help. Jefferson planned to buy, if possible, 
the land upon which New Orleans is situated, and sent a 
committee to negotiate the purchase. Bonaparte was at 
the time expecting war between England and France. He 
knew that in case of hostilities England could send a fleet 
to take possession of Louisiana and he was determined that 
the country should not fall into British hands. The Amer- 
ican commission had been instructed to pay $2,500,000 for 
the site of New Orleans, but Napoleon made a proposition 
to transfer the whole of the territory of Louisiana for $20,- 
000,000. England was likely to declare war at any time, 
and Napoleon would not give the Americans time to con- 
sult the President. It was finally agreed that France should 
transfer to the United States all the territory of Louisiana 
for $15,000,000. Of this amount France received in United 

100 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 101 

States bonds $11,250,000 and $3,750,000 was paid to Amer- 
ican citizens for their claims against the French govern- 
ment. 

Extent of the Purchase. — The land acquired under 
this purchase was almost twice as large as the previous area 
of the United States. It cost about two and three-fifths 
cents per acre. From this vast territory twelve great states 
have been created, namely, Louisiana in 1812, Missouri in 
1821, Arkansas in 1836, Iowa in 1846, Minnesota in 1858, 
Kansas in 1861, Nebraska in 1867, Colorado in 1876, Mon- 
tana in 1889, South Dakota in 1889, North Dakota in 1889, 
and Wyoming in 1890. A portion of Colorado, Minnesota, 
and Wyoming was not included in the purchase. 

The Population at the Time of the Purchase. — The 
e timated population of the land ceded by Napoleon in 1803 
was 50,000 whites, 40,000 slaves, and 2,000 free blacks. 
More than four-fifths of the whites and all of the blacks ex- 
cept about 1,300 lived in or near New Orleans. The remain- 
ing population was scattered throughout the country now in- 
cluded in Arkansas and Missouri. The population of the 
country now embraced in the purchase is approximately 
15,000,000, of which Nebraska has 1,192,214 according to 
the 1910 census. 

Napoleon asks for Protection of Inhabitants. — Napo- 
leon sought to preclude the subsequent cession of the terri- 
tory to any rival powers and to protect the inhabitants, who 
were mainly French and Spanish, in the enjoyment of their 
religion and racial rights by inserting the following guaranty 
in the treaty : 

The inhabitants of the ceded territory shall be incor- 
porated in the Union of the United States and admitted 
as soon as possible, according to the principles of the 
federal constitution, to the enjoyment of all the rights. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 103 

<(dvantages, and immunities of citizenship of the United 
States ; and in the meantime they shall be maintained and 
protected in the free enjoyment of their liberty, proper- 
ty, and the religion which they profess. 

Some Results of the Purchase. — Though this vast 
territory had actually been pressed upon the American 
ambassadors, its acquisition was indeed a triumph for the 
young republic. Says Thomas M. Cooley: 

Of the transcendent importance of that event, aside 
from the expansion of territory, we get some idea when 
we reflect that the Missouri Compromise, the annexa- 
tion of Texas, the Compromise of 1850, the Kansas-Ne- 
braska Bill, the Dred Scott case, and at length the 
Civil War, were events in regular sequence directly 
traceable to it, not one of which would have occurred 
without it. 

The First Nebraska. — Nebraska is an Otoe Indian 
word meaning "Flat Water." It was used by the Indians 
to designate the Platte River, which has been jocosely de- 
scribed as being "a mile wide and an inch deep." The 
word Nebraska as first used by the white men applied in 
a general way to the Platte River and its tributaries, as 
well as to all the valleys drained by them and the plains 
adjacent to these valleys. This general territory had no 
definite boundary but embraced what is now Nebraska and 
in a vague way those parts of Kansas, Dakota, Colorado, 
Wyoming, and Montana lying nearest to the Platte. 

Govermnent of the Unorganized Territory. — This un- 
organized Nebraska territory was governed from various 
outside points without officers of its own and without repre- 
sentation. The unorganized part of the upper Louis- 
iana country was first attached to Indiana Territory, which 
had been organized in 1800. On this account, we may say 
that Vincennes, Indiana, was the first capital of Nebraska, 



104 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

and that William Henry Harrison, then governor of Indiana 
and later President of the United States, was the first gov- 
ernor of Nebraska. From 1805 to 1812 Nebraska formed 
a part of the territory of Louisiana with its capital at St. 
Louis. From 1812 to 1821 it was attached to the territory 
of Missouri. When Missouri became a state in 1821, Ne- 
braska was left practically without government, until 1834. 
In this latter year laws were passed by Congress forbidding 
white men to hunt, trap, or settle within the "Indian coun- 
try" and making it a crime to take intoxicating liquor within 
the district. 

Organizing Nebraska Territory. — Attempts were 
made in Congress to pass an act organizing Nebraska as a 
territory in 1853. These led to the passing of the famous 
Kansas-Nebraska Bill in 1854. This act definitely organ- 
ized Nebraska as a territory, including the present Nebras- 
ka, the Dakotas, Montana, Wyoming, and northern Col- 
orado. 

Indian Rights in Nebraska. — Indians had inhabited 
the territory, of Nebraska for many years. In organizing 
the territory their claims had to be recognized. They re- 
sented the white man's entrance upon their lands and es- 
pecially disliked anything like permanent improvements, as 
they thought these foreshadowed the loss of their hunting 
grounds. They harassed travelers over the trails in earlier 
days and sometimes stole or burned their wagons and other 
property and massacred the owners. In order to protect 
the white travelers and settlers it was necessary to organize 
the territory, so as to have officers to enforce law and order 
and to extinguish the Indian title to the land. In the Kan- 
sas-Nebraska Bill the Indians were guaranteed title to their 
lands until they should voluntarily come into the territory, 
or otherwise cede their lands to the government under 
terms to be agreed upon. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 105 

Some of the Nebraska Indians ceded their lands as tribes 
and moved to Oklahoma, where they still have reservations. 
Others (nearly 4,000) still live- in Nebraska. Their lands 
have been surveyed and are usually owned in regular farm 
tracts. In most cases they rent farms to white men and live 
idly from the proceeds.- They spend their time in loafing, 
visiting each other, and telling stories of the old days of 
hunting and warfare. The Omahas and the Poncas are the 
only original Nebraska Indians still living in the state. 
The Winnebagoes, the Santee Sioux, and the Sauk (Sac) 
and Fox were moved into the state by the government in 
early days. The Omahas and the Winnebagoes, num- 
bering about 1200 each, live in Thurston County. The Ne- 
braska Poncas, numbering about 300, live near the mouth 
of the Niobrara River. The Santee Sioux, numbering 
about 1100, live in Knox County. The Sauk (Sac) and 
Fox, numbering about 100, live in southeast Nebraska and 
northeast Kansas. Indians now have all the rights of white 
citizens in Nebraska. 

The Slavery Question. — The great question involved 
in the admission into the Union of all states carved out 
of the Louisiana territory, previous to the Civil War, was 
slavery. Since the South favored slavery and the North 
opposed it, every state that applied for admission into the 
Union became the subject of more or less debate in Con- 
gress as to whether it should enter as a free or a slave state. 
The southern members not only wanted the additional slave 
states for commercial and financial reasons, but also for the 
purpose of adding to the number of their senators and rep- 
resentatives in Congress. This would enable them to 
strengthen the forces that were trying to hold the nation in 
line for slavery. Naturally the northern members opposed 
this movement and demanded that the states be admitted as 
free states. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 107 

States Admitted before Nebraska. — The states formed 
from the Louisiana territory and admitted into the Union 
before Nebraska were Louisiana, Missouri, Arkansas, 
Iowa, Minnesota, and Kansas. Their admission brought 
forth some discussion of the slavery question, but the debate 
in Congress and the local dissensions in each state grew par- 
ticularly violent in the case of Missouri and Kansas. Armed 
forces opposed each other, and many crimes, including mur- 
der, were committed.^ Missouri came in as a slave state 
under the Missouri Compromise in 182L Kansas entered 
the Union under the Kansas-Nebraska bill in 186 L This 
bill left the decision as to slavery or not to be decided by 
the citizens of the new state. 

Slavery, Missouri Compromise, Kansas-Nebraska 
Bill. — The Missouri Compromise Act was passed by 
Congress in 1820. It provided that Missouri should be 
admitted as a slave state, but that there should be no slavery- 
forever in any other territory north of the parallel of 36''30', 
which is the southern line of Missouri. This act made 
Nebraska free territory. When, however, the Kansas-Ne- 
braska Bill was passed, leaving the question of slavery to 
be settled by the citizens of each state, confusion and con- 
troversy resulted. People of both factions rushed into Kan- 
sas and tried to control the elections. The quarrel became 
bitter and led to fights and murders. Nebraska, being newer 
territory and further north, escaped the bloody strife from 
which Kansas suffered-^ In 1861 the legislature of Ne- 
braska passed an act abolishing slavery, and in 1863 the 
Emancipation Proclamation was issued by the President. 

1 See Robinson's history, The Kansas Conflict. 

2 From 1855 to 1860 ten to fifteen slaves were held in Nebraska. 
Most of these were at Nebraska City. There was one auction sale 
of slaves on December 5, 1860, in the streets of Nebraska City. Two 
slaves were sold, Hercules and Martha. 



108 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

As Nebraska was not admitted as a state until 1867, the 
slavery question did not form an issue at the time of ad- 
mission. 

Territorial Government. — By the passage of the Kan- 
sas-Nebraska Bill, Nebraska territory was made into a po- 
litical division with its own government. It was now to 
have its ov/n capital, governing and clerical officials, county 
divisions, land surveys, and other conveniences necessary to 
civilized habitation. Under this organization some of its 
officials were appointed by the President of the United 
States and some were selected by the people. It had now 
to pass through thirteen years of territorial government 
until settlement and growth should prepare it for statehood. 



CHAPTER VII 

The coming of the People. — In 1854, when the Kan- 
sas-Nebraska Bill established the territory of Nebraska, 
there were very few white people living in the country. 
The congressional act of 1834 had forbidden white men to 
enter the "Indian country," and this remained the law until 
1854. At the latter date probably about six hundred white 
people lived in the territory under permission of officers of 
the government. There were three hundred at Fort Lar- 
amie (in Wyoming), two hundred at Fort Kearny, and 
the rest scattered at other points. A good many half-breeds 
descended from white and Indian marriages and probably 
a few white traders are not included in this estimate. 

While still a part of the Louisiana Territory, Nebraska 
had received much advertising throughout the East. Ac- 
counts of buffalo hunts and Indian fights circulated freely 
and created much interest. Washington Irving and other 
writers who traveled through the "Indian country" at an 
early day wrote interesting tales of their experiences, John 
C. Fremont and other army officers who had been much 
impressed with the fertility of Nebraska's prairies returned 
to the eastern states, and by their glowing stories still fur- 
ther aroused the desire to see and possess this western land. 
When the Kansas-Nebraska Bill opened the territory for 
settlement, there was a rush of people to obtain the benefits 
to be derived from occupying the new land. The first set- 
tlers made their homes along the Missouri River, where 
water and timber were plentiful and where wild fruit, fish, 
and small game supplemerited the food supply imported by 

109 



110 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF 'NEBRASKA 



boat up the river or produced from the soil. Both of these 
sources of supply were sometimes limited. The open prai- 
ries, exposed to blizzards and susceptible to drouths, did 
not prove inviting to the white man until railroads came to 
carry his crops to market and bring him the conveniences 
of life. 

The Government. — Under the United States terri- 




Engraving from History of Wyoming, by C. G. Coutant. 

Fort Laramie in 1836 



torial law, the officers of the territory were partly appointed 
by the President and partly elected by the people. The 
governor, the secretary, the marshal, the district attorney, 
and the judges, of which Nebraska had three, were appoint- 
ed by the President^ A delegate to Congress,^ members of 

1 These officers were not necessarily residents of the territory at 
the time of their appointment. They were often without property or 
other interest in the territory and carried their effects in a carpet- 
bag, the traveling bag in vogue in those days. They were sometimes 
unpopular with the TDcopIe, and this style of government was called 
"the carpet-bag government." 

2 A territorial delegate to Congress could report and advise in the 
interests of his territory but could not vote. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 111 

the upper and lower house of the territorial assembly or 
legislature, and county officers were elected by the people. 

The First Nebraska Officers. — President Franklin 
Pierce named the following officials for the first govern- 
ment of the Nebraska territory and the United States sen- 
ate confirmed them : Francis Burt, of South Carolina, gov- 
ernor; Thomas B. Cuming, of Iowa, secretary; Experience 
Estabrook, of Wisconsin, United States district attorney; 
Fenner Ferguson, of Michigan, chief justice ; E. R. Har- 
den of Georgia, and James Bradley, of Indiana, associate 
justices of the supreme court; and Mark W. Izard, of 
Arkansas, United States rnarshal. Each of the judges of 
the supreme court was judge also of one of the three judi- 
cial districts into which Nebraska was divided in January, 
1855. It was necessary for these appointees to come to 
Nebraska and organize a government before an election 
could be called for the minor officials. As they were not 
appointed until the summer of 1854 and had to make the 
long journey from their several states to Nebraska by stage- 
coach or on horseback, it was not until December 12th of 
the same year that the first election was held in Nebraska. 

Early Locations. — While there had been much travel 
and some traffic in Nebraska previous to 1854, there were 
very few definite settlements. Fort Calhoun was estab- 
lished under the name of Fort Lisa in 1812. Bellevue was 
established about 1820 by the fur traders, and was later 
given considerable impetus by the location of the Presby- 
terian Mission there in 1846. Winter Quarters, the old 
Mormon village on the northern border of the present Oma- 
ha, dates back to 1846. Fort Kearny was first located 
by the government near the present site of Nebraska City in 
1847 and was moved a year or two later to a point about 
eight miles southeast of the present city of Kearney. This 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 113 

move was made to protect travel on the Oregon Trail from 
the Indians. None of these locations had any early perma- 
nent growth except Bellevue, where the buildings of the 
American Fur Company, Indian Agency, and Presbyterian 
Mission were located. These were the only places of note 
within the boundaries of the present state of Nebraska. 

A New Town, Omaha. — When in the summer of 1854 
enterprising citizens came across the river from Council 
Bluffs, Iowa, and plotted a new town on the west shore, 
they called it Omaha City, after the prominent Indian tribe 
of that name.^ Omaha at once became a rival for territor- 
ial honors of Bellevue, as well as of other towns that sprang 
up later. Omaha and Bellevue at once entered into a strife 
as to which should become the capital of the territory. 
Each town had a newspaper. The Bellevue Palladium was 
published for Bellevue at St. Mary, Iowa, and the Omaha 
Arrow was published at Council Bluffs, Iowa. Each paper 
set forth the reasons why its town should be made the cap- 
ital. The Palladium observes that Bellevue is admitted 
by every important observer to be the most commanding and 
beautiful location. The Arrow replies that Omaha "is 
nevertheless a handsome place," and then adds in detail: 

It occupies a beautiful plateau, sloping well to the 
river. The view is extensive and picturesque, taking in 
a long reach of the river both up and down, the broad 
rich bottom lands dotted over with fields, houses, and 
cattle. . . and a strange, romantic, and bewildering 
background of indented and variously formed bluffs. 

Early Towns. — The first number of the Arrow, on 

1 Alfred D. Jones was the first postmaster of Omaha. Before' there 
was a postoftice building, he carried the letters in his hat, as he 
went about his work. When requested for mail he removed his hat, 
sorted the letters, and returned the ones not called for to the hat- 
postoffice. 




From a photograph owned by the Nebraska Slate Historical Society. 

Francis Bi^rt, first Governor of Nebraska Territory 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 115 

July 28, 1854, gave a description of all the towns worthy 
of its notice, in the following language : 

Omaha City may be considered among the first in 
importance. It is situated directly opposite Bluff City 
upon a delightful and sightly eminence overlooking the 
country on all sides for miles around, bringing in view 
the city of Council Bluffs, town of St. Mary, Trader's 
Point, and Council Point in Iowa, and Winter Quarters 
in this territory. It extends directly to the river land- 
ing, and back upwards of a mile, and some mile and a 
half up and down the river. There are some fifteen 
hundred lots surveyed, together with a large square on 
the summit for the capital. . . An extensive brick 
yard is in successful' operation and a large amount of 
prime lumber and shingles is looked for daily. A numr 
ber of houses are already reared, and hundreds are an- 
ticipating building this summer and fall. Preparations 
are in progress for rearing a large and commodious 
building immediately, to be used at present as a state 
house and for offices for the various departments pro- 
vided it should be required by the executive. A good and 
commodious ferry boat runs every day regularly between 
this city and Council Bluffs. . . . The next in im-. 
portance is Bellevue, some ten miles below this city. It 
is situated about three miles from the river upon a high 
and beautiful eminence, commanding a view for many 
miles around, including Bluff City, St. Mary, and Chou- 
teau. There is timber in the bottoms below the site 
and a continuous body all the way .to this city. There 
are good springs of water at hand, with good farming 
lands around. The old Mission house, the government 
Agency buildings, and trading house of the American 
Fur Company are near this site. Mr. Sarpy has a new 
steam ferry boat which continues to run across through 
the business part of the year, but is now laid up until 
spring. Ferrying is, however, done with a few boats at 
present. (Old) Fort Kearny is situated some eighteen 
miles below the mouth of the Platte and is also on the 
river and is also a beautiful and charming location with 



116 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

all necessary advantages for being rapidly built into a 
thriving city. We cannot speak from much observation 
of this point. Winter Quarters is also located upon the 
river some miles above this city ; it is pleasantly situated 
upon a high bench and inclined plane, giving a fair and 
pretty view of the country for a great distance around, 
and is the old site of the Winter Quarters of the first 
Mormon pioneers. The town is now being surveyed and 
improvements and public buildings are now being erected. 
There is good water, plenty of rock, considerable timber, 
and excellent farming lands adjacent. A flat boat ferry 
is kept in operation for the benefit of the settlers, etc. 
Ft. Calhoun is some fifteen miles still up the river and is 
expected to be laid out upon the site of the old fort, 
which is upon a ranch or plateau some fifty or one 
hundred feet above the river. 

The article goes on to say that there are other beautiful 
townsites up the river and suggests that large towns will 
some day be established on the Elkhorn River and Loup 
Fork of the Platte. This was a prophecy of the future 
Fremont and Columbus. It is worth noting that the people 
.of that day thought only of building along the streams and 
did not comprehend the value of the upland prairie for lo- 
cations of towns and not even for farms to any extent. The 
few who to a partial extent did see the future of Nebraska's 
prairie, and took advantage of the opportunity, have been 
richly repaid for the privations and hardships they en- 
dured in connection with their pioneer efiforts. 

Arrival of the Territorial Officials. — During the fall 
of 1854 the officials appointed by President Pierce to govern 
the new territory arrived. Governor Burt came from South 
Carolina and was accompanied by his son, then a boy, later 
a doctor in New Mexico. Several of his South Carolina 
neighbors also came with him to settle in the new country. 
A letter from his son. Dr. Armistead Burt, describing the 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 117 

journey to Bellevue, is interesting in this connection. It 
gives us some idea of the methods of traveUng in the early 
days: 

Governor Burt journeyed from Pendleton, South 
Carolina, to Athens, Georgia, in his own conveyance; 
thence to Nashville, Tennessee, by rail; from Nashville 
to Louisville, Kentucky, by stage coach; by rail to Chi- 
cago and on to Alton, Illinois; thence to St. Louis by 
boat; then up the river to St. Joseph by boat; the river 
being low, the boat could go no further. Being anxious 
to reach the end of the journey, he hired a hack and 
traveled in it to Nebraska City, which then contained one 
house, where he lodged one night. Next morning he 
hired a two-horse wagon from the only citizen of the 
city, and traveled in it to Bellevue, reaching there the 
same evening. 

Burt was not a strong man physically and the change of 
food and water on the way, some of which was none too 
good, together with the fatigue from a journey which 
lasted more than two months, caused him to arrive at 
Bellevue in a much weakened condition. He went imme- 
diately to bed and was never able to get up. He took the 
oath of office before Chief Justice Ferguson on October 16, 
at the age of forty-seven years, and passed away on October 
18, being governor only three days. 

Governors during the Territorial Period. — Five gov- 
ernors and two acting governors served during the thirteen 
years when Nebraska was a territory. They were the fol- 
lowing : 

Francis Burt, Governor, October 16, 1854, to October 18, 
1854. 

Thomas B. Cuming, Acting Governor, October 18, 1854, 
to February 20, 1855. 

Mark W. Izard, Governor, February 20, 1855, to Octo- 
ber 25, 1857. 



118 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

Thomas B. Cuming, Acting Governor, October 25, 1857, 
to January 12, 1858. 

W. A. Richardson, Governor, January 12, 1858, to De- 
cember 5, 1858. 

J. SterHng Morton,^ Acting Governor, December 5, 1858, 
to May 2, 1859. 

Samuel W. Black, Governor, May 2, 1859, to February 
24, 1861. 

J. Sterling Morton, Acting Governor, February 24, 1861, 
to May 15, 1861. 

Alvin Saunders, Governor, May 15, 1861, to February 
21, 1867. 

Three of these governors — Burt, Cuming, and Saun- 
ders — have counties named in their honor. Streets in 
Omaha are named for Cuming and Izard. While all of 
these governors were instrumental in organizing and admin- 
istering the government of Nebraska, those w^ho stand out 
as leaders are Cuming, Morton, and Saunders. * These three 
men had much to do with shaping the history of the ter- 
ritorial period. 

Thomas B. Cuming. — According to the United States 
law governing organized territories, on the death of the gov- 
ernor of a territory the secretary becomes acting governor 
and so remains until another governor is appointed by the 
President. Thomas B. Cuming became acting governor of 
Nebraska. He held this position until Governor Izard ar- 
rived in the territory on February 20, 1855. Cuming again 
became acting governor after Izard resigned on October 25, 
1857, and continued in office until W. A. Richardson, the 
third governor of Nebraska, entered upon his duties, Jan- 
uary 12, 1858. Cuming was taken ill during the fall of 

1 Morton was appointed secretary of Nebraska Territory on the 
death of Secretary Cuming in 1858. 



ooSvionoa 
vD svaoo 




120 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

1857 and died on March 23, 1858, when only twenty-nine 
years of age. Though he was acting governor of Nebraska 
only a few months, he accomplished the work of organizing 
the Nebraska government so well that many of his contem- 
poraries consider him one of the greatest, if not the great- 
est, of early Nebraskans. He was a man of strong will, 
good judgment, and prompt and energetic action. These 
characteristics coupled with integrity of character gave 
him the desirable qualities found in a leader. 

The First Countiesi. — Under the authority of the law 
of the United States controlling territories, Cuming di- 
vided that portion of the territory along the Missouri River 
into eight counties, namely, Burt, Cass, Dodge, Douglas, 
Forney, Pierce, Richardson, and Washington. They in- 
cluded the regions where people had begun to settle and 
establish their homes. 

The First Census. — On Saturday, October 21, 1854, 
Cuming issued a proclamation announcing that a census 
would be taken of the inhabitants of the territory and that 
the enumeration would begin on October 24 1854. Another 
proclamation was issued on October 26, giving instructions 
as to the duties of the deputy marshal who was to take 
the census in the six districts into which the territory had 
been divided for that purpose. According to these in- 
structions the work was to be completed by November 20, 
1854. The following table shows a white population of 
2,732 and thirteen negro slaves. As a record of the first 
census of Nebraska it is interesting in detail. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 121 

CDNSUS, NOVEMBER 20, 1854 



"^■^ ^j ^j ^^ ^>mi yi 



Dist. County || | |^ | I L ll„ 

^oJ.jU-M jii-o j::rt jiS'O Jl(ua!C 

^^ ^:g ^§ ^^ ^g CO fa^T^ 

1. Richardson 236 26 181 190 214 4 851 

2. Pierce and Forney 185 24 138 127 131 9 614 

3. Cass 95 16 101 44 97 353 

4. Douglas 250 29 120 131 115 645 

5. Dodge 74 1 8 13 10 106 

6. Washington and 

Burt 89 7 12 28 27 163 

Totals 929 103 560 533 594 13 2,732 

Legislative Districts and Apportionment. — After the 
census had been taken. Acting Governor Cuming appor- 
tioned the eight counties into legislative districts and as- 
signed to each county or district the number of representa- 
tives to be elected to the first territorial assembly or legis- 
lature. Burt, Dodge, Douglas, and Washington counties, 
north of the Platte River, were apportioned twenty-one 
members of the legislature, while the other four counties, 
south of the Platte, were assigned eighteen members. Doug- 
las County, which contains the city of Omaha, had twelve 
members of the legislature. Burt, Dodge, and Washing- 
ton were north of Douglas and had a combined representa- 
tion of nine members, who would naturally vote with Doug- 
las for Omaha as the capital. The friends of Bellevue read 
in this apportionment the doom of their hopes for the cap- 
ital.i 

1 Cumming lived in Omaha and consequently was considered by 
South Platte people to have been partial in making this apportion- 



122 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

Le:gisi.ative; Apportionment 

Counties Members of Members of 

Council House 

Richardson 1 2 

Pierce 3 5 

Forney 1 2 

Cass 1 3 

Douglas 4 8 

Dodge 1 2 

Washington 1 2 

Burt 1 2 

Total 13 26 

The First Thanksgiving. — On November 18, 1854, 
Cuming issued a proclamation appointing Thursday, Nov- 
ember 30, as Thanksgiving Day. 



ment. A committee of Bellevue citizens passed resolutions asking 
President Pierce to remove him from office. Cuming appeared be- 
fore the legislature the following January and stated that the com- 
plete canvas of the census returns showed the apportionment to be 
correct and the census as shown in the table above to be incomplete. 
However the census as shown in the table is the census of record. 
Governor Cuming also wrote a letter to President Pierce, saying: 
"I understand that petitions are in circulation asking my removal 
from the office of governor. These petitions have been prepared 
and are being distributed by speculators whose fortunes have been 
marred by the location of the capital [at Omaha]. My only request 
is that if any charges shall be made I may not be dealt with with- 
out the opportunity of answering them. . . . Great fortunes 
have been invested in rival points for the capital, and the exasper- 
ation expressed and desperate persecution resorted to by the dis- 
appointed are not unnatural and were not unexpected. I am pre- 
pared, however, to prove by letters and certificates that I have re- 
fused bribes and relinquished gratuities, and have located the 
capital where my pecuniary interests were least considered, at a 
point which I believe would give satisfaction to the people and 
stability to the territorial organization." 



CHAPTER VIII 

Calling of the First Legislature. — On November 23, 
1854, Cuming proclaimed that an election should be held 
December 12, 1854, to choose a delegate to Congress and 
thirty-nine members of the first territorial assembly, or 
legislature, which had been called to meet January 8, 1855. 
On December 20 the last proclamations pertaining to the 
territorial organization were issued; one convened the leg- 
islature on the 16th of January instead of the 8th of Jan- 
uary, 1855, while another announced the organization of 
the courts and designated judges of probate, justices of the 
peace, sheriffs, constables, and clerks for the several coun- 
ties. In this latter proclamation, the three judges appoint- 
ed by the President were placed, one over each of the three 
judicial districts into which Nebraska was divided. 

The First Election. — On December 12, 1854, the first 
election was held. Thirty-nine members were chosen for 
the territorial legislature, thirteen for the council (upper 
house or senate), and twenty-six for the lower house (house 
of representatives). 

Napoleon B. Giddings was elected the first delegate to 
Congress over four opponents. He was a native of Ken- 
tucky, spent most of his life in Missouri, and came to Ne- 
braska City occasionally, where he was a member of the 
townsite company. 

The First Capitol Building. — The first capitol build- 
ing was erected by the Council Bluffs and Nebraska Ferry 
Company, which had been incorporated under the laws of 
Iowa. The company operated a ferry between Council 

123 



124 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

Bluffs, Iowa, and Omaha. In order to further Omaha's 
opportunity to become the capital of the territory, the com- 
pany erected a capitol building and announced that the 
"whole arrangement" was made without a single dollar of 
cost to. the government. 

Territorial Legislatures. — There were twelve legisla- 
tive sessions during the thirteen years of the territorial 
period. These were convened at different dates, one each 
year, but usually during the winter months when the rural 
members could best afford to leave their farm work. The 
first session was naturally the most important, as it enacted 
the fundamental laws for the future Nebraska.^ 

The First Legislature. — The first legislature of Ne- 
braska convened in the new capitol building at Omaha on 
January 16, 1855. It was composed of a council of thir- 
teen members and a house of twenty-six members. Some 
of the legislators were men of strong personality. Among 
them was Joseph L, Sharp, who was elected president of the 
council. He had formerly been a member of the legisla- 
ture of Illinois and also of Iowa. His previous experience 
made him a valuable member of Nebraska's first legislature. 
Sharp represented Richardson County and presided over the 
council with dignity and wisdom. Another law-maker of 
experience in the council was Origen D. Richardson, of 
Douglas County. He had served in the Michigan senate 
and had been governor of that state. He possessed hon- 
esty and sound judgment. He probably planned and shaped 
more legislation than any other member of either house. 
Andrew Hanscom was elected speaker of the house and 
Reverend W. D. Gage served as chaplain in both house and 
council. 

1 On account of the importance of the first legislature, it is here 
treated separately, while the leading enactments of the eleven other 
legislatures are considered in the order of their occurrence. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 



125 



Governor Cuming's Message. — The chief points advo- 
cated by Acting Governor Cuming in his message were the 
following : A memorial to Congress in behalf of the Union 
Pacific Railroad up the Platte Valley; preliminary arrange- 
ments for telegraphic and mail communication with Pacific 




First Territoriai, Capitoi. Building of Nebraska at Omaha, 35x75 
Feet. Cost about $3,000. 



coast points ; the building of stockades for soldiers on the 
western trail; organization of military companies as a pro- 
tection against the Indians ; enactment of a code of laws 
for the government of the territory; and the establishment 
of public institutions. 

The Second Governor. — Mark W. Izard of Arkansas, 
United States marshal for the territory of Nebraska, re- 
ceived the appointment as governor of Nebraska and took 
the oath of office on December 23, 1854, in the city of 



126 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

Washington, before an associate justice of the Supreme 
Court. Izard came to Nebraska with some experience in 
legislation. He had been prominent in the legislature of 
Arkansas, both as president of the senate and speaker of the 
house. 

Governor Izard's Arrival. — Izard arrived in Omaha 
from Washington on the 20th of February, 1855, and on 
the same day Cuming introduced him to the joint session 
of the legislature. He at once took up the duties of his of- 
fice by delivering his message to this joint session. He rec- 
ommended that the laws of Iowa be adopted for temporary- 
purposes, "as a large portion of our citizens at present are 
from that state and are more or less familiar with its sys- 
tem," and that the property of settlers on lands occupied by 
them but not yet surveyed be treated as taxable. In general, 
Izard adopted the recommendations which Cuming had 
made in his message a few days previously. 

Locating of the Capital. — The momentous contest of 
the session was opened by tlie introduction of bills for the 
location of the seat of the territorial government. Omiha, 
Plattsmouth, Bellevue, and Brownville were candidates for 
this honor. Bills to locate the capital, in which a blank space 
was left for the name of the town, were introduced — one 
in the council and one in the house. The struggle became 
very bitter, not only in the legislature, but also between the 
different sections interested. A vote favoring Plattsmouth, 
Cass County, passed the council, and a vote of twelve in 
favor to thirteen against was taken in the house. At this 
point the Plattsmouth adherents decided the matter by 
voting for Omaha. 

The Laws of the First Session. — The laws passed by 
the first legislative session were classified in eight parts. 




o 
o 
W 
a 
t/3 



w 

W 
o 

I 

w 
!z; 

6 

s 
o 



128 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

The first part, a civil code, was taken from the Iowa 
code.^ 

The second part comprised laws of a general nature pre- 
pared by the legislature itself. 

The third part was a criminal code taken from that of 
Iowa. 

The fourth part located and established territorial roads. 

The fifth part defined the boundaries of twenty-four 
counties ^ and located the county seats or provided for their 
location. 

The sixth part provided for the incorporation of indus- 
trial companies ^ and towns and cities.* 

1 A code is a group of laws relating to the same subjects or to 
the same territory. 

2 The twenty- four counties included the original eight and six- 
teen additional ones. The boundaries of the first eight were changed 
and fixed temporarily. The name of Pierce was changed to Ottoe 
(Otoe) and Forney to Nemaha. These eight counties exist at the 
present time but with their boundaries somewhat modified. Of the 
sixteen new counties, eight still retain their respective names and at 
least a part of their original territory, though greately changed in 
boundaries. They are Buffalo, Cuming, Gage, Dakota, Lancaster, 
Saline, Pawnee, and York. The remaining eight, Blackbird, Clay, 
Greene, Izard, Jackson, Johnson, Loup, and McNeale, have disap- 
peared from the map. Clay and Loup remain in name but far west 
of their first location. 

3 Under these laws two salt companies were chartered to operate 
the salt deposits in Lancaster County. In the early days of the ter- 
ritory a considerable amount of salt was obtained from this district. 
Two railroad companies were also chartered to build west through 
Nebraska, one up the north side of the Platte River and one a 
little further south. These companies were also empowered to build 
telegraph lines. Nothing however was done until about ten years 
later under the organization of the Union Pacific. 

* Many towns and cities were chartered under this act. Promoters 
of townsites preferred to use "city" in order to give their towns 
a high-sounding title, but often a "city" was only a stretch of 
prairie with a few stakes driven into the ground. Some townsites 
never got beyond this stage. The Nebraska Medical Society was 
also chartered, together with three educational institutions. Only 
one of these, the Nebraska University, came into being. It was 
located at Fontenelle in Washington County but ceased to exist 
in 1873. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 129 

The seventh part provided for the incorporation of bridge 
and ferry companies and authorized the keeping of ferries 
and the building of bridges. 

The eighth part consisted of joint resolutions adopted at 
the session. 

Provision for Second Census. — Under part second of 
the legislative enactments provision was made for another 
census to be completed by October 11, 1855. The previous 
census had been unsatisfactory to the South Platte people. 
It was thought that a new census would show a majority 
of the people living south of the Platte, and a new legis- 
lative apportionment, based on a new census, would give 
the South Platte district a majority in the legislature, and 
possibly at a future time change the capital to their district. 

Prohibition in Nebraska. — Nebraska's first prohibition 
law was an act of Congress in 1843 to keep intoxicating 
liquor out of the "Indian country." The earliest territorial 
legislation against intoxicants is found in part second of 
the laws of the first legislature. A committee was appointed 
to make a report, from which the following extract is 
taken : 

That in the opinion of this committee, the traffic in 
intoxicating drinks is a crime, and they would be un- 
willing to legalize this crime by the solemn sanction of 
a law granting license for its commission. They are un- 
willing to elevate to respectability by legal sanction any 
trade or traffic that tends to demoralize [the] community, 
retard the progress of education, impoverish the people, 
and impose on the sober and industrious part of the com- 
munity, without their consent, a tax which must neces- 
sarily be incurred to take care of paupers and criminals 
manufactured by the traffic. They are unwilling to make 
a traffic creditable the evils of which cause hunger, 
shame, distress, and poverty. 

A bill was introduced prohibiting the manufacture and 



130 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

sale of intoxicating liquors in the territory. The bill passed 
both houses of the legislature by a large majority.^ 

Property Exemptions and Interest Rates. — At this 
first session a law was passed exempting the property of a 
married woman from liability on account of the debts of 
her husband,' but no general exemption of homesteads or 
other property was made.^ An interest rate of 10% was 
fixed where no other rate was provided by contract, and the 
contract rate was left without limitation. 

Establishing a Common School System. — The law "to 
establish a common school system" conferred upon the ter- 
ritorial librarian the duties of territorial superintendent of 
public instruction, at a salary of $200 a year, and provided 
for the organization and support of common district schools. 
A superintendent was provided for each county. He had 
general supervision of the schools of the county and made 
reports to the territorial superintendent. The county super- 
intendent was required to visit the schools of his county at 
least twice each term and was authorized to examine those 
who desired to teach, to grant certificates to the successful 
candidates, and to apportion the county school tax. A dis- 
trict school board was provided to manage the afifairs of the 
district and, before employing teachers, to examine them in 
reading, spelling, writing, arithmetic, geography, history of 
the United States, and English grammar. 

Territorial Roads. — Part fourth of the laws of the first 
session contained ten enactments to locate and establish 

^ This prohibition law remained on the statute books until 1858, 
when it was repealed by the enactment of a license law. It required 
fifty-eight years, or until 1916, for the citizens of Nebraska to con- 
clude to "manifest their determination to sustain" a prohibition law. 

2 A $500 property exemption was granted to married persons or the 
heads of families, and the exemptions permitted under the Iowa Code 
were of course allowed in Nebraska. See exemption laws in the 
Nebraska Code for a complete list passed later. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 131 

ten territorial roads. These roads were intended to connect 
the principal towns and settlements of the territory. They 
were therefore mainly near the Missouri River, but one 
was located between Brownville and Marshall's trading 
point on the Big Blue River; another extended from Ne- 
braska City west to Grand Island ; while still a third reached 




From drawing by Geo. Simons, in the frontier sketch hook of N. P. Dodge. 

First Ci,aim Cabin in Nebraska 
Built by Daniel Norton, between Omaha and Bellevue, in 1853 



from Bellevue to Cuming County. Commissioners to build 
the roads and a surveyor were provided. Their expenses 
were to be paid pro rata by the counties through which the 
roads passed. The survey of each' road was to be recorded 
in each of the counties through which it passed. In general, 
these roads followed the best natural highways, that is, the 
most level country with the fewest streams to bridge. There 
had been no land surveys in Nebraska and there were no 
section lines at that time. This act further provided that 



132 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

all public roads should be sixty-six feet wide, and this width 
has been adhered to down to the present time. 

Claims and Claim Clubs — First Farms. — Before the 
legislature convened, before surveys were made, and before 
section lines were established in Nebraska, people had begun 
to settle on the land in the eastern part of the state and to 
stake out farms. These settlers were called squatters, or 
claimants. No settler knew where his farm line was, ex- 
cept by agreement with his neighbors. He farmed the land 
around his home. This condition existed for about two 
years. Surveys were then made, and the land was offered 
for sale by the government.^ In order to protect themselves 
in the possession of the lands on which they had settled, the 
claimants organized claim clubs and adopted rules, which ir. 
effect became laws, to govern their rights on their claims. 
This system was doubtless borrowed from Iowa, where it 
had been in use for some time. 

There is evidence that the rules of these clubs were en- 
forced with equity and firmness. The settler who came into 
this voluntary court of equity was protected in his rights 
from the time he squatted on his claim until he obtained 
title to his land after its sale by the government. The rules 
of the several clubs did not greatly differ in substance. 

The first claim club association of Nebraska, of which we 
have any record, was organized at a meeting held under 
"lone tree," the western terminus of the Council Bluffs 
and Nebraska Ferry, on July 22, 1854. The following reso- 
lution was adopted by the club : 

We whose names are hereto subscribed, claimants up- 
on the public lands, do hereby agree with each other 

1 There was no free homestead law in Nebraska until 1863. The 
government sold the land to bidders, usually for a small price. Many- 
acres of land in Nebraska passed from the government into the hands 
of the first owners at $1.25 per acre. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 133 

and bind ourselves upon our honor that we will protect 
every lawful claimant in the peaceable possession of his 
claim, and that in case his claim is jumped ^ we will, 
when called upon by the Captain of the Regulators, turn 
out and proceed to the claim jumped, and there endeavor 
to have the matter settled amicably by an arbitrator, and, 
if they cannot agree, they shall choose a third; but if it 
cannot be so settled, we will obey the captain in care- 
fully and quietly putting the jumper out of possession 
and the claimant in. 

We further agree with each other that, when the sur- 
veys have been made and the land offered for sale by the 
United States, we will attend said sales and protect each 
other in entering our respective claims, each claimant 
furnishing the money for his said entry. 

After the sales we are to deed and re-deed to each 
other so as to secure to each claimant the land each has 
claimed, according to the lines now existing. , 

It must be understood that these rules were not the law 
but simply rules of the claims clubs.^ Such neighborhood 
associations served their purpose very well until the land 
was surveyed and could be bought from the government.^ 



1 Many of the claimants put more or less expensive improvements 
on their claims. This they did at their own risk, as they had no 
title to the land. In case a second party moved on to a man's claim 
he was called a ''claim-jumper," and the members of the club were 
bound by agreement to get rid of him. 

2 The claimants were apparently wrong in at least one respect. 
They tried to hold 320 acres of land, whereas the government al- 
lowed them only 160 acres. The territorial legislature passed laws 
allowing 320 acres and otherwise governing claims, but these laws 
were contrary to government regulations and could not be enforced. 

3 Under act of Congress (1854) Nebraska lands were granted to 
settlers in 160 acre tracts. This pre-emption act provided that each 
settler could obtain his 160 acres by selecting it, living on it six 
months, and paying the government $1.25 per acre for it. The free 
homestead law was not in effect until 1863. 



CHAPTER IX 

United States Surveys. — By an act of Congress, ap- 
proved July 22, 1854, the President was authorized to ap- 
point a surveyor-general for the territories of Nebraska and 
Kansas. All lands to which the Indians had given up their 
title or should give up were to be surveyed. John Calhoun 
was the first surveyor-general. The first survey was the 
running of the base line, the boundary line between Kansas 
and Nebraska. This line was surveyed west from the Mis- 
souri River on the 40th parallel for a distance of one hun- 
dred and eight miles. Here it crosses the sixth principal 
meridian, which forms the west line of Jefferson, Saline, 
Seward, and Butler counties. At that time it was the 
western boundary of the Omaha Indians land cession. To 
this base line and the sixth meridian parallel survey lines 
were run at mile intervals. County lines were located, and 
townships six miles square, each containing thirty-six sec- 
tions of land, were numbered. The townships were num- 
bered north and south from the base line and designated 
townships number one, two, three, etc. They were numbered 
east and west from the sixth meridian, and designated range 
one, two, three, etc. The sections were numbered as shown 
in the map. 

A section of land 640 acres, contains four quarter sec- 
tions of 160 acres each, the usual size of a farm. The quar- 
ter sections are recorded as the northeast, southeast, south- 
west, and northwest quarter sections. For convenience, the 
roads or highways are placed on the section lines between 

134 




LINE ^o*A, PARALLEL 



C^ANSAS) 



These townships are six miles square. The shaded township^ is 
four north of the base Hne and range seven east of the sixth prin- 
cipal meridian. 



136 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

the farms, and reduce the acreage of the farm by the num- 
ber of acres in the road.^ 

The First Courts. — The first court of record within 
the territory was held March 12, 1855, at Bellevue, the first 
judicial 'district.^ Judge Fenner Ferguson presided. The 
Palladium' of March 21, 1855 says: 

The court was organized by the choice of Silas A. 
Strickland of Bellevue, clerk. Several foreign-born 
residents made their declaration of intention to become 
citizens. No other business of importance coming up, 
the court adjourned to April 12. 

The first session of the supreme court is thus noted in 
the Palladium of February 21 : 

The first session of the supreme court of Nebraska is 
now being held at the capital (in Omaha), Honorable 
Fenner Ferguson, Chief Justice, presiding. The court 
convened on Monday, the 19th instant. J. Sterling Mor- 
ton, of Belleview^ has been appointed clerk of the court 
Honorable E. R. Harden is prevented by indisposition 
from attendance, since the first day of th^ session. He is 
at his lodgings at Belleview, where every attention to his 
health and comfort is bestowed. 

The Second Census. — The first census, as we have 
seen, was unsatisfactory to the South Platte people. After 
the adjournment of the legislature a second census was 

1 The highway is sixty-six feet wide and takes thirty-three feet 
from the quarter section on each side. The reduction on each square 
one hundred sixty acres, with a road on each side, is approximately 
four acres. This shortage is not considered in buying and selling 
land. 

2 A judicial district consists of one or more counties, its size 
depending on the population and amount of business in the district. 
It is presided over by one or more judges as the volurne of court 
work may require. There are at present eighteen judicial districts 
in Nebraska, including the ninety-three counties. 

3 The early way of spelling Bellevue. It was so called by the 
early explorers, possibly first by Manuel Lisa. Belle and vue are 
French words meaning "beautiful view." 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 137 

taken in 1855 to ascertain the correct number of inhabitants. 
It gave Nebraska a population of only 4,494. This number 
was a disappointment to those who had supposed that many 
pro-slavery and anti-slavery immigrants would rush into 
Kansas and Nebraska to establish control of these territories 




Draiving by Simons, from N. P. Dodge sketch book. 

Bei^levue, Nebraska, 1856 
No. 1 (near center), old home of Peter A. Sarpy; No. 2 (in fore- 
ground), Sarpy's new home; No. 3, Indian mission; hill on extreme 
right, present site of Bellevue College. 

for their respective parties. The supposition proved to be 
true of Kansas only, as Nebraska was so far north that 
the pro-slavery people considered it a coming free state 
and devoted their efforts to holding Kansas in line for 
slavery. For the first few years following 1854 Kansas 
gained in population faster than Nebraska and in February, 
1855, counted 8,601 people within its borders. 

Election of 1855. — The election was held on the first 
Tuesday of November. The officers elected were a delegate 



138 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

to Congress, a territorial auditor, treasurer, librarian, and 
twenty-six members of the lower house of the general as- 
sembly. Each of the several counties elected a probate 
judge, sheriff, register,^ treasurer, and surveyor. Each pre- 
cinct chose two justices of the peace and two constables. A 
district attorney for each of the three judicial districts was 
also chosen. 

The chief interest in this election centered in the contest 
between Bird B. Chapman and Hiram P. Bennett for the 
office of delegate to Congress. Chapman was from Omaha 
and represented the North Platte district. Bennett came 
from Nebraska City and represented the South Platte dis- 
trict. Political parties were not yet developed in Nebraska, 
and the only contests of note were between the North and 
South sections. 

The returns showed 528 votes for Bennett and 575 for 
Chapman. The election board, perhaps because of some 
legal irregularity, threw out the votes of Richardson, Da- 
kota, Washington, and Otoe counties. This action gave 
Chapman 380 votes and Bennett 292. Bennett contested the 
election by appealing to Congress for the seat of the dele- 
gate from Nebraska. The house committee on elections 
counted the vote of the four discarded counties, which would 
have seated Bennett, but the house itself, supporting the 
committee's minority report, rejected the vote of white citi- 
zens on the Indian Reservation. This action gave Chapman 
a lead of six votes and the house seated him by a vote of 
69 to 63. Thus Chapman became Nebraska's second dele- 
gate to Congress. 

"Wild Cat" Banks. — The first and second legislatures 
chartered a number of banks to operate in Nebraska. There 

1 The register keeps a record of legal papers, such as deeds, 
mortgages, etc. 



- SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 139 

were eight or rftore of them, located at Omaha, Florence, 
Brownville, Nebraska City, Bellevue, Desoto, and Tekamah. 
There were also some banks operated without special legis- 
lative charter.^ Under these bank charters five men were 
required to put into the bank or promise so to do within a 
given time, an amount of securities in the way of valuable 
property, such as stocks, bonds, and mortgages, to secure 
the payment of the money the bank issued and circulated. 
Each bank printed its own bills and paid them out through 
loans and otherwise, but always with a promise to redeem 
them on demand. With several banks printing bills and 
circulating them without restraint money became plentiful 
in the territory and property values rose rapidly. Serious 
trouble resulted. Some of the bankers did not deposit suf- 
ficient security to redeem their bills and others failed to 
deposit any security whatever. There were as many differ- 
ent kinds of money as there were banks. Each bank was 
responsible for its own money alone, and, if a bank failed, 
its money became valueless at once. The failure of one or 
two banks led to confusion and distrust of all paper money. 
By 1857 it became apparent that the banks were not able 
to redeem the money which they had circulated. 

The "Panic of 1857" led to a general failure of banks, 
not only in Nebraska, but throughout the United States. 
Paper money, in consequence, had no value. People could 
not buy anything or pay debts except with silver or gold 
money, which was very scarce. Nebraska suffered with the 
rest of the country, and many years passed before her people 

1 These "wild cat" banks were so-called on account of the unsafe 
way in which they were' conducted and the unsound currency which 
they issued. They were located in various states, but more particu- 
larly in the western states where the settlements were new and money 
scarce. There was a strong demand for the paper money they were 
empowered to issue. The questions involved in banking had not 
received the attention that has since been given them. 



140 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

again enjoyed good times. They profited, however, by this 
experience and passed better banking laws. A bank failure 
is now almost unknown in Nebraska. 

Territorial Finances. — The territorial auditor and 
treasurer made their respective financial reports to the sec- 
ond legislature. The legislature had provided for a tax 



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Ferry Across the Ei/Khorn River 
Twenty-three miles northwest of Omaha, 1854. Drawing by 
George Simons, whose uncle, Norton Simons, owned the Bellevue 
ferry. 

of two mills on the assessed valuation of the taxable prop- 
erty in the territory. This valuation proved to be $617,882, 
on which amount a two-mill levy would be $1,235.76. This 
was not enough money to meet the expenses of the new com- 
monwealth; and the auditor was further obliged to report 
that not a single county treasurer had settled his account 
with the territory and he had no means of knowing how 
much had been collected. He reported that he had drawn 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 141 

warrants against the territory to meet expenses to the 
amount of $1,971.29, leaving still a balance of $1000 to 
meet. The warrants covered incidental legislative expenses 
which the federal government did not recognize, amount- 
ing to $1,454.70 and the salaries of the auditor, treasurer, 
and librarian ^ amounting to $516.50. These warrants were 
a lien on the territory, drew a specified rate of interest, and 
were payable when the treasury should have sufficient funds 
on hand to meet them. Parties receiving them were obliged 
to wait indefinitely for their money or sell them, at a heavy 
discount, to men with money to loan.^ 

It was only natural that the early finances of the territory 
should get into a more or less chaotic condition. There was 
little taxable property, and people generally were too busy 
with private affairs to safeguard public interests. Even 
when elected to do so, the salary was not sufficiently entic- 
ing to cause any one to spend much time at public work. 

The Second Legislature — County Lines — School Re- 
port. — The second legislature convened at Omaha, De- 
cember 18, 1855. Governor Izard in his message stated 
that the foundation of the capitol building was completed 
and that Surveyor General John Calhoun was rapidly ac- 
complishing the governmental land survey of the territory. 

Organizing counties and designating their boundary lines 
was important work of the early legislatures. At this ses- 
sion a bill was passed providing that the uninhabited por- 
tion of Nebraska should be organized into counties, each 
county to be twenty- four miles square. It would thus com- 
prise sixteen townships, each six miles square. Although 
several changes have since been made, making streams the 
county lines in places, yet the present map of Nebraska 

1 The librarian was also superintendent of schools in the territory. 

2 Such warrants were often salable in the eastern states. 



1421 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

with its straight county Hues ^ shows the effect of this 
early legislative act. 

The first school report was made to this legislature by 
the territorial librarian (now state superintendent). As 
little had been done in school organization avid work, the 
report consisted mostly of recommendations for the future. 

The Youthful Commonwealth. — Nebraska by 1856 
began to show features of normal political organization and 
life. The census taken in the fall of this year recorded a 
population of 10,716. Public discussion of questions bear- 
ing on the interest of the territory prepared the way for 
better government. There was a beginning of a "press," 
represented mainly by the Nebraska City News, the Omaha 
NebraskaUy and the Advertiser of Brownville. People were 
building homes and showing a disposition to remain in Ne- 
braska as a good place to live. The "carpetbaggers" and 
land and townsite speculators were less in evidence. 

Third Legislature. — The third legislature convened 
on January 5, 1857. It took under consideration four prin- 
cipal subjects: the division of Douglas County,^ the re- 
moval of the capital, the chartering of more "wild-cat" 
banks, and the repeal of the criminal code. This legislature 
also provided for an increase of the tax levy so that the 
general expenses of the territory and the school expenses 
might be met. 

The Capital Controversy. — The location of the capi- 
tal was a source of continual wrangle between the North 
and South Platte sections. The third legislature voted to 
make Douglas, a new townsite in Lancaster County, the 

1 Compare the county map of Nebraska with the county map of 
Kentucky, Tennessee, or other eastern states. 

2 The division of Douglas County was not accomplished. The de- 
mand for it was the result of a neighborhood feud between Bellevue 
and Omaha. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 143 

capital city, but Governor Izard vetoed the bill. There was 
not sufficient majority to pass it over his veto. Since the 
federal government and the people of Omaha had spent 
more than $50,000 to erect the second building on Capitol 
Hill, where the Omaha Central High School is now situated, 
it appeared undesirable to agitate further for capital re- 
moval at this time. 

More Bank Charters. — There was a popular demand 
at the third session for more bank charters. Some strong 
men in the territory, who foresaw danger in this procedure, 
opposed the demand. Among these were J. Sterling Mor- 
ton ^ and George L. Miller.^ However, their opposition 
could not prevail, and the bill favoring the charters passed 
both the house and council. Governor Izard vetoed this 
bill, although he had signed previous ones. Only two banks 
were chartered over the governor's veto, the Bank of Te- 
kama and the Bank of DeSoto. This ended the chartering 
of banks by special acts.^ 

Repeal of the Criminal Code. — The most extraordi- 
nary and surprising action of the third session was the 
repeal of the criminal code. The measure was passed over 
the governor's veto by the entire vote of the council, except 
that of George L. Miller, and with only two negative votes in 
the house. There may have been some connection between 
this action and the defeat of the bank charters. The crim- 
inal code contained several penalties against illegal banking. 

1 Morton had failed of re-election to the third session because of his 
strong opposition to the bank charters while a member of the second 
session. 

2 Miller came to Omaha as a doctor, but gave much of his life to 
politics and journalism. In partnership with Daniel W. Carpenter 
he founded the Omaha Daily Herald in 1865. This paper became the 
Omaha World-Herald in 1889 under Gilbert M. Hitchcock, who is 
still the owner. 

3 Banks are now chartered by the state under the state banking law 
which governs banking in general. 



144 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

Under the general statutes any number of people could or- 
ganize for the purpose of transacting any business. With 
the criminal prohibition removed, this clause permitted free 
banking. Only six banks, however, took the liberty to issue 
bank notes without charters. 

Izard, "Cuming, and Richardson. — Izard was governor 
during the period of the third legislature, but he resigned in 
October, 1857. Cuming, who was still secretary of the ter- 
ritory, again became acting governor. This position he 
retained until Governor William A. Richardson, the new 
appointee of President Buchanan, entered upon his duties, 
January 12, 1858. Cuming was thus governor when the 
fourth legislature convened on December 8, 1857. 

Governor Izard is on record as vetoing the capital re- 
moval bill, the bank charter bill, and the bill repealing the 
criminal code. All of these vetoes were doubtless to his 
credit, since the wisdom of the legislature in enacting these 
measures can now certainly be questioned. 

Cuming delivered his message to the fourth legislature 
in December, 1857. It was one of the most important of 
his official communications. The opening paragraphs read 
as follows: 

We are assembled today under the most favorable 
auspices. The territory of Nebraska has, thus far, 
achieved all that her friends could ask. Her early or- 
ganization and rapid progress have signally illustrated 
the safety and expansive force of the principles of the 
federal compact, from which naturally sprang her or- 
ganic act. 

The imprint of her ''Great Seal" has been genuine. 
''Popular Sovereignty" has been vindicated ; "Progress" 
verified. Peace and good order, practical vigor and 
manly observance of constitutional obligation have char- 
acterized the conduct of our people. No dangerous agi- 
tation or political heresies have been permitted to take 




pq 



t O 



146 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

root ; but the seeds of industry, education, and law, 
planted at the commencement by enterprising and prac- 
tical men, have yielded the legitimate fruit of a safe and 
efficient self-government. 

Under such circumstances, and inhabiting a country 
of such vast extent, natural beauty, and productive 
wealth — although lamentable dissensions have given to 
our sister territory a wider notoriety — we may well 
congratulate each other upon our verification of the polit- 
ical truth, ''Happy is the people whose annals are tran- 
quil." 

The Fourth Legislative Session. — The fourth session 
convened on December 8, 1857, but accomplished little ben- 
eficial legislation. The question as to the removal of the 
capital again came up for discussion. Omaha was willing 
to make a large donation ^ in order to retain the capital. 
Early in the session a bill to remove the capital was intro- 
duced. A majority of the legislators appeared to favor the 
measure, but the minority, by resorting to strategy, were 
able to keep it from coming to a vote. Finally a majority 
from both houses left Omaha and reconvened at Florence. 
This daring and revolutionary act, which later proved to be 
illegal, was the outcome of years of sectional strife between 
the North and South Platte districts. The territory now 
had two legislatures in session. 

The legislature at Florence passed several laws, including 

a capital-removal bill, but since the validity of its acts was 

denied, no official record of them has been preserved. The 

legislature at Omaha passed only a few general laws. One 

of these abolished the use of private seals. Another provided 

1 On January 7, 1858, Governor Cuming sent the following message 
to each house: "I have to inform your honorable body that I have 
received from Jesse Lowe, mayor of Omaha, a deed of trust to all 
that portion of land known and designated on the old plat of Omaha 
City as 'Capital Square' for the use and purposes of the capital of 
the territory, and the state of Nebraska when it may become such." 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 147 

that hereafter the legislature should meet on the first Mon- 
day in January. There were a few special acts passed re- 
lating to incorporations and territorial roads. 

Coming of Governor Richardson — A Better Feeling. — 
Governor Richardson arrived at Omaha on January 12, 
1858, during the session of the fourth legislature. His 
strong character, thorough education, and experience with 
men enabled him to exert a quieting influence upon the two 
factions. He began to advocate movements that tended to 
unite the North and South Platte districts and to remove 
contentions from the legislature. He suggested bridging 
the Platte River so that travel from the South Platte terri- 
tory to Omaha would be more easily accomplished; also 
leaving the location of the capital to a vote of the people 
instead of action by the legislature. He, with other prom- 
inent men, began to advocate a special session of the legis- 
lature to consider important matters neglected in the turmoil 
of the fourth session. These suggestions tended to bring 
about a more constructive frame of mind on the part of the 
people and, instead of quarreling over their differences, they 
began to study measures to correct them. 



CHAPTER X 

Death of Acting Governor Cuming. — Death claimed 
Thomas B. Cuming on the 23rd day of March, 1858, at 
Omaha. He had been a leader in founding the common- 
wealth of Nebraska, which stands as an enduring monument 
to his short but eventful life. J. Sterling Morton as sec- 
retary of the territory succeeded him. 

First Political Conventions*. — No political parties ex- 
isted in Nebraska until 1858. As long as the principal offi- 
cers of the territory were appointed by the federal govern- 
ment, political organization seemed unnecessary. There 
were a few contests between different factions of the Demo- 
cratic party. Such leaders as J. Sterling Morton thought 
that sectional voting was quite sure to win for the South 
Platte country, while under a strict party vote the Omaha 
politicians might be able to control important questions. A 
correspondent in the Advertiser insisted that organization 
was necessary to "purge the party of black republicanism, 
abolitionism, and whiggism," ^ whose mien was so hideous 
to Democrats of that day. At a mass meeting called in 
Omaha on the 8th of January, 1858, a very long platform ^ 
was adopted. The first resolution declared that ''it is ex- 
pedient to organize the Democratic party in the territory, and 
the same is hereby organized." 

The first attempt to hold a Republican convention in Ne- 
braska was made on the 18th of January, 1858. Those who 
attended were too short-sighted to see the rising tide of 

1 Black republicanism, abolitionism, and whiggism, were names 
used at this time to denote the anti-slavery contingent. 

2 A statement setting forth the principles of a political party. 

148 




3, i 



150 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

anti-slavery sentiment which within two years was to sweep 
over the Northwest and to land the Republican party in 
power by the election of Abraham Lincoln to the presidency 
in 1860. The first Nebraska platform of the Republican 
party, as adopted at this meeting, was not much more than a 
timid protest against the actions of the Democratic party 
then in power. 

The Democratic convention at Plattsmouth, June 3, 1858, 
was the first delegate political convention held in the terri- 
tory. Under this arrangement a number of delegates were 
sent from each county to the convention. It was the duty 
of the convention to nominate party candidates for office 
and otherwise to look after the interests of the party, in- 
cluding the adoption of a platform. This method of nomi- 
nating candidates was superseded by the system of primary 
elections in 1907. Democratic tickets were nominated in 
Douglas and Otoe counties, and in both cases they were op- 
posed by independent tickets. Candidates on independent 
tickets claimed to be independent of party affiliations. 

Postponement of Public Land Sales. — The govern- 
ment proposed to offer the public lands for sale when the 
survey was finished. The settlers had spent all their money 
for improvements and had little or nothing with which to 
buy their farms. They feared that these would be bought 
by speculators and that they would lose the money invested 
in improvements. They were greatly disturbed by a deci- 
sion of the United States land commissioner, Thomas A. 
Hendricks, on August 2, 1858, that failure to make pay- 
ment on their lands before the day of public sale would 
forfeit all their rights. At a meeting held at Brownville 
the settlers sent a committee to Washington to protest 
against the sale. These delegates presented an address to 
the President, which set forth that "owing to excessive rains 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 151 

during the summer not only was there an entire failure of 
the wheat and oats crop, but as a consequence an accumu- 
lation of sickness heretofore unknown in that region." It 
seemed that scarcely a dollar could be raised for the pro- 
posed sales, and after the sales, the land being subject to 
private entry, the claims and improvements would be at the 
mercy of land "jobbers" who were hovering around the 
land offices. The government postponed the sale for one 
year. It required a full week for the news of the post- 
ponement to reach Nebraska. When it finally came, there 
was great rejoicing among the settlers. The following item, 
which appeared in the Advertiser ^ indicates the feeling : 

The whole city was brilliantly illuminated; nearly 
every window was filled with burning candles; bonfires 
were kindled in the streets and on the tops of the sur- 
rounding hills ; fireballs flew in the evening until about 
8 o'clock. Honorary guns were fired for the President 
of the United States. 

Need of More and Better Laws. — Soon after the elec- 
tions, which were held on the first Monday of August, Gov- 
ernor Richardson issued a call for a special session of the 
legislature. He stated in his call that "great confusion and 
uncertainty characterize the laws of the territory." There 
was some doubt, at first, as to where the session would take 
place. As we have learned, an attempt had been made to 
move the capital to Florence, but the federal authorities rec- 
ognized the minority which remained in Omaha by issuing 
pay checks to them and not to those who sat in Florence. 

The Fifth or Special Legislature. — This session of the 
legislature met September 21, 1858, and made many import- 
ant enactments. Among them were a criminal code, a code 
of procedure, a merchant's lien law, an improved revenue 
law, a liquor license law, a general law giving county com- 



152 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

missioners power to grant licenses to operate ferries, a law 
providing for a territorial board of agriculture, and a new 
apportionment of members of the legislative assembly. Dis- 
gust with the Florence fiasco, the firm and effective attitude 
of Governor Richardson, and the growing feeling that the 
removal of the capital at this time was impracticable, all 
combined to bring about good results at this session. Coun- 
cilman Robert W. Furnas reported early in the session that 
the "capital question is not spoken of by anyone." A me- 
morial to Congress to appropriate $30,000 to complete the 
capitol building at Omaha passed the house without division. 
Resignation of Governor Richardson. — The governor- 
ship of the territory again became vacant in December, 1858, 
by the resignation of Governor Richardson. His departure 
was a loss to Nebraska. He returned to Illinois and after- 
wards succeeded Stephen A. Douglas as United States Sen- 
ator from that state. 

GOVERNOR BLACK'S ADMINISTRATION 

Appointment of Governor Black. — Judge Samuel W. 
Black was appointed governor of the territory in Febru- 
ary, 1859, and assumed the office on the 2nd of the following 
May. His appointment was gratifying to the people be- 
cause he was already a citizen of Nebraska. He had been 
sent from Pennsylvania as judge of the second judicial dis- 
trict in 1857. 

Public Land Sales. — Sale of the public lands was now 
accepted by the settlers without remonstrance, not because 
it was desired, but rather because it was regarded as inevi- 
table. The sales were advertised to take place at Nebraska 
City August 1 and 29, 1859 ; at Omaha July 5 and 25 ; at 
Dakota City July 18; and at Brownville August 8 and Sep- 
tember 5. The sales were confined to certain townships 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 153 

north of the base Hne and east of the sixth meridian.. An 
interesting picture of conditions and the fatherly treatment 
of real settlers by the government is afforded by the account 
of the first day's sale at Brownville : 

On Monday last the office at this place opened for 
private entries. Colonel Nixon very generously refused 
to receive applications for private entries before 12 
o'clock, giving the settlers opportunity to file during the 
forenoon under the benefit of the 15th section of the 
act of 4th September, 1841, by which a year's time is se- 
cured in which to pay for the land. One hundred and 
twenty-seven filings were made before 12 o'clock, fifty- 
two of which were made before breakfast. 

As a rule the settlers were able by this time to buy their 
land, each his own claim. Some borrowed money to make 
payments, but the rate of interest was so high that they 
often lost their claims in the end. 

Proposed Annexation to Kansas. — During the later 
'fifties there was some agitation in favor of the annexation 
of the South Platte country to Kansas. It was proposed 
to take the territory lying between the Platte and Kaw rivers 
in Kansas and form a state, the western boundary of the 
proposed state being near the one hundredth meridiait. The 
scheme of annexation seems to have been generally fav- 
ored by the people living south of the Platte, and in consid- 
erable measure by the people of Kansas north of the Kaw. 
The strength of the movement must be attributed to three 
sources : the earlier bitter feud between the north and south 
Platte sections, the difficulty in crossing the Platte, and the 
prospect of a speedier admission to statehood. The success 
of the Republican party in 1860 put an end to the annexa- 
tion question, as it assured early admission of Kansas into 
the Union as a free state.^ 

1 The Republican party was the anti-slavery party, and the election 



154 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

First Democratic Delegate Convention. — It must be 
remembered that during the formative period of the terri- 
tory of Nebraska the Democratic party was in national con- 
trol and the earliest officers were appointed by federal au- 
thority. It was natural, therefore, that the offices in the 
Nebraska territory should be filled by Democrats. 

The first territorial Democratic ticket was nominated by 
the convention held at Plattsmouth August 18, 1859. Gen- 
eral Leavitt L. Bowen of Sarpy County called the conven- 
tion to order. Mills S. Reeves of Otoe County was made 
temporary chairman, and James W. Pattison of Omaha, 
temporary secretary. Silas A. Strickland of Sarpy County 
was elected permanent chairman. According to the report 
of the committee on credentials ^ delegates were present 
from all of the twenty-four counties represented in the ap- 
portionment law of the preceding general assembly or leg- 
islature. The convention chose Experience Estabrook as 
the Democratic candidate for delegate to Congress. The 
following resolution was also adopted by the convention : 

RESOI.VED, that to carry out the object set forth in res- 
olution No. 5 of the resolutions adopted by this conven- 
tion, it is necessary that a special session of the general 
assembly of Nebraska territory be called for the pur- 
pose of authorizing the people to form a constitution 
preparatory to admission into the Union as a state ; 
and we recommend to his excellency, Governor Black, 
to call a special session of the general assembly for that 
purpose at such time as to him may seem proper. 

contest of 1860 was based almost entirely on the slavery question. 
Many northern Democrats were also opposed to slavery. 

1 Each county held its convention, usually at the county seat, be- 
fore the state convention. The number of delegates was apportioned 
to each county according to its population. These delegates were 
given credentials (written certificates of entry) to the state conven- 
tion. The first dutv of the state convention was to appoint a com- 
mittee to examine these credentials and determine each delegate's 
authority to sit in the convention. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 155 

First Republican Delegate Convention. — The first 
territorial convention which can be called Republican met 
in the school house at Bellevue at eleven o'clock in the fore- 
noon of August 24, 1859. Samuel G. Daily was nominated 
for delegate to Congress. Though attended by the leading 
Republicans of the territory, the convention avoided the 



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PoEicE Force 



designation of Republican and styled its nominees the Peo- 
ple's Territorial Ticket. Its demand for a homestead law, 
for a Pacific railroad, for statehood, and its denunciation of 
the slave trade were similar to declarations on the same 
subjects in the Democratic platform. The convention also 
declared for popular sovereignty. 

The Election. — The Democrats triumphed in the elec- 
tion, securing about two-thirds of the members of the 
general assembly. They also had a majority in the council, 
which had been chosen the year before. There was a spir- 



156 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

ited contest between Daily and Estabrook for delegate to 
Congress. 

The territorial board of canvassers found three hundred 
majority for Estabrook and gave him a certificate of elec- 
tion, but Daily appealed to the newly elected Republican 
House of Representatives at Washington. Judge Alfred 
Conkling, father of Roscoe Conkling, prepared Daily's pro- 
test and the House declared he was entitled to his seat. 

The Sixth Legislature — The Governor's Message. — 
The sixth legislature convened at Omaha December 5, 1859. 
Governor Black in his message spoke of the "lack of a 
penitentiary," requested the organization of counties fur- 
ther west where settlers were already found, cautioned 
against financial measures tending to increase the public 
debt, and recommended the passage of a usury law.^ 

He also referred to outbreaks by the Pawnee Indians : 

During last spring and in the early part of the sum- 
mer, the settlers, particularly in the Platte Valley and 
about the Elkhorn River, as well as in other places (south 
as well as north of the Platte), were subjected to depre- 
dations and outrages by the Pawnee Indians, of the 
most aggravating character. For a season no one 
within reach was safe in person, habitation, or estate. 
The citizens residing in the districts not very thickly 
settled were exposed to personal insult and violence, 
and their property not only stolen, but boldly taken or 
driven away in the presence of themselves or families. 
Houses were broken into and plundered of their entire 
contents, and in some cases families were turned out 
without a home. Post offices were entered by vio- 
lence, and the mail of the United States either robbed 
or destroyed. The people of the neighborhood or- 
ganized as well as they could for their protection, and, 
finally, about the first of July, appealed to the Execu- 

1 Interest rates were so high that borrowers had great difficulty in 
meeting their obligations. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 157 

tive for assistance. During my temporary absence 
from the capital and with the approbation of Mr. Secre- 
tary Morton, an expedition was organized under the mil- 
itary direction of General Thayer, and started, as prompt- 
ly as possible, for the scene of the trouble. Information 
being communicated to me by express, I started imme- 
diately for the capital, having with me a few government 
troops, under Lieutenant Robertson, of the dragoons, and 
arrived in Omaha on the evening of July 5th. With 
these troops and some volunteers, I came up with the 
expedition early on the morning of the 8th. The whole 
force numbered about 200 men, and was placed under the 
immediate command of General Thayer. After a forced 
march of four days, we overtook the Indians, who had 
by this time set forth on their summer hunt. After the 
first demonstration, they surrendered, unconditionally, 
and submitted to reasonable and just terms. 

Enactments of the Sixth Legislature. — The principal 
enactments of the sixth legislature were as follows : an 
act providing for an election to be held the first Monday in 
March, 1860, to decide whether or not the people desired 
self-government ^ and to elect delegates to a convention 
which should prepare a state constitution; an act concern- 
ing the judicial authority of justices of the peace and pro- 
cedure before them; and an act providing that a delegate 
to Congress be elected in 1860 and every two years hereaf- 
ter, and that his term of office should begin on the 4th of 
March next after his election. A bill prohibiting slavery in 
the territory was also passed by both houses, but was vetoed 
by the governor. This legislature also authorized the organ- 
ization of several new counties. 

The report of the auditor to the legislature showed some 
financial improvement, for the counties were now beginning 
to levy taxes. However, few remittances came in from 

1 An election to vote on statehood. 



158 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

county treasurers, and the territorial warrant account, in 
consequence, was continually increasing. It was necessary 
not only to levy taxes against the property of the territory, 
but also to compel county treasurers to collect them and 
make early and regular remittances to the territorial treas- 
urer. 



CHAPTER XI 

The First Statehood Election. — As the agitation for 
annexation to Kansas subsided, the question of statehood 
arose, especially with the people of the South Platte coun- 
try. The first statehood election was held March 5, 1860. 
Two thousand, three hundred and seventy-two votes were 
cast against, and 2,094 were cast for state government. 
Many minor questions and neighborhood differences cloud- 
ed the main issue in this election. It is possible that a full 
and fair vote would have placed Nebraska in the list of 
states then instead of seven years later. 

The Congressional Campaign of i860. — The con- 
gressional campaign of 1860 was both interesting and im- 
portant. At that time a change was sweeping over the 
entire country. The Democratic party, which had held 
almost undisputed sway for so many years, gave way to the 
Republican party. The Democratic candidate for delegate 
to Congress was J. Sterling Morton, while the Republicans 
nominated Samuel G. Daily. Morton received the larger 
vote and the canvassing board declared him elected, but some 
time later Governor Black, in whom the law placed author- 
ity to issue certificates of election, issued a certificate to 
Daily on the ground that fraud had been committed in cer- 
tain counties. 

The Morton-Daily Contest. — The political event of 
the summer of 1861 was the contest for the delegate's seat 
in Congress. Richardson of Ilhnois, Vborhees of Indiana, 
and Vallandigham and Pendleton of Ohio advocated the 

159 



160 SCHOOL HIS'TORY OF NEBRASKA 

cause for Morton on the floor of the House, while Dawes, 
chairman of the committee on elections, very ably conducted 
the case for Daily. The committee's report was in favor 
of Daily. 

Departure of Governor Black. — Governor Black left 
the territory May 14, 1861, for his old home in Pittsburg, 
Pennsylvania.^ As his successor President Lincoln ap- 
pointed Alvin Saunders of Iowa. 

GOVERNOR SAUNDERS'S ADMINISTRATION 

Legislative Sessions. — Governor Saunders served the 
territory of Nebraska as governor from the time he en- 
tered on his duties May 11, 1861, until he was succeeded 
by David Butler, the first governor of the state, in 1867. 
During this time there were five legislative sessions held on 
the following dates : 

The eighth session convened December 2, 1861. 

The ninth session convened January 7, 1864. 

The tenth session convened January 5, 1865. 

The eleventh session convened January 4, 1866. 

The twelfth session convened January 10, 1867. 

Free Homestead Law. — Governor Saunders's admin- 
istration saw the United States free homestead law - go 
into effect. This law became effective in 1863. It provided 
that a settler could have 160 acres of land by living on it 
five years and paying a filing fee of about fourteen do]- 

1 On his arrival in the east Black raised the 62d regiment of 
Pennsylvania volunteers and entered the Civil War. He was killed 
in the battle of Gaines' Mill (1862), while leading his command in a 
desperate charge. 

2 The first 160 acres of land in the United States to be filed on 
under this act were in Gage County, Nebraska. The "homesteader" 
was Daniel Freeman, who filed his papers just after midnight on 
January 1, 1863, having come from a party to the land office for the 
purpose. See Dobbs' History of Gage County, Nebraska. 



162 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

lars. The preemption law under which 160 acres cost $200 
was still in effect also. 

Three Important Questions. — Three subjects largely 
absorbed the interest of the people during this administra- 
tion. One was the Civil War, another was the admission 
into the Union as a state, while the third was the beginning 
of the Union Pacific railroad. The Civil War really in- 
volved two questions, slavery and the disruption ^ of the 
United States. Nebraska chose the right side of both of 
these questions. 

Civil War Incidents. — Although a very newly settled 
country, Nebraska furnished three thousand soldiers for 
the Union in the. Civil War. This was about one-tenth of 
the entire population. There was a great scarcity of money 
in the territory. The quota assessed to Nebraska in 1861 as 
a war tax was about $20,000. This amount seems very 
small to the present generation but it was a very heavy bur- 
den at that time. The federal government paid the terri- 
torial government about $20,000 annually for the expense 
of the legislative session. At the urgent request of the 
people, Congress credited the territory with the amount of 
the war tax in place of one appropriation for the legislative 
expense. There was accordingly no session of the legisla- 
ture in the winter of 1862-1863. The members were elected 
at the fall elections of 1862, but they did not convene, owing 
to the lack of funds. 

The Civil War did not extend into Nebraska, but there 

was some fighting in Kansas. Much of this was carried 

on by a rough class of people who took advantage of war 

1 The Southern states seceded and wished to form a separate gov- 
ernment in which slavery could be retained. The North claimed 
that the United States was one nation and indivisible, and that a 
state or states could not withdraw from the Union and set up a 
separate government. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 163 

times to pillage, plunder, and burn the property of their 
antagonists. Some of these so-called ''Border Ruffians" 
came across into Nebraska occasionally and carried on their 
nefarious work. They were called "Jayhawkers." ^ They 
claimed to steal only from those who favored the South, 
but it appeared that they stole wherever there was anything 
of value to carry away. Governor Saunders, in a procla- 
mation, threatened arrest and severe punishment to all 
"Jayhawkers" caught breaking the law in any way in Ne- 
braska. 

In his message to the legislature of January 7, 1864, 
Governor Saunders spoke highly of the courage and patriot- 
ism of Nebraska's soldiers. "A Nebraska soldier, whether 
called upon by his country to confront the wily savage on 
the frontier, or the rebel hosts in battle array, has never 
shrunk from duty, quailed before dangers, or turned his 
back on the foe." The governor recommended that the 
legislature take action to assist the widows and orphans of 
those who had given their lives for the preservation of the 
Union. 

The Enabling Act. — On April 19, 1864, the President 
approved an act of Congress to enable the people of Ne- 
braska to adopt a constitution, organize a state, and enter 
the Union on an equal footing with other states. But the 
discouraging effect of the Civil War, with the resultant light 
immigration to the West, and the Indian troubles all united 
to retard action at this time and delayed admission for 
nearly three years. 

Statehood. — Statehood was the most important ques- 

1 Two alleged Jayhawkers, arrested in Johnson County, ^ were 
brought to Nebraska City, where one was shoved under the ice of 
the Missouri River and the other one was released but was followed 
and shot. As a result of this mob action a local newspaper announced 
that "Jayhawking is about played out in Nebraska." 




Engraving from a photograph owned by the Nebraska State His- 
torical Society. 

W1LI.1AM Walker at the Age oe 33 
Provisional governor of the proposed territory of Ne- 
braska, 1853. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 165 

tion of 1866. Though party Hnes were not strictly drawn, 
the RepubHcans generally favored, and the Democrats gen- 
erally opposed, the change to state government. A joint 
resolution submitting a state constitution to the people 
passed the council by a vote of 7 to 6, and the house by vote 
of 22 to 16. This constitution was not prepared by any 
designated authority, but by politicians who were anxious 
for statehood. It was rushed with unseemly haste through 
the legislature ; it was not even read the third time, was not 
referred to a committee, and was not printed. The con- 
stitution was submitted to the people at the fall election of 
1866 and was adopted by a vote of 3,938 to 3,838. 

On the third day of the session of the 29th Congress, 
December 5, 1866, Senator Wade of Ohio introduced a bill 
for the admission of Nebraska into the Union. The bill 
passed on the 9th of the following January to allow negro 
suffrage. On the 19th of January the House passed the 
bill by a vote of 103 to 55, after adopting a similar amend- 
ment. 

The following day the Senate concurred in the House 
amendment. On the 29th of January President Johnson 
vetoed the bill on the ground that the part of it composed 
of the Boutwell amendment was unconstitutional, and he 
suggested that the conditions ought to be submitted to a 
vote of the people. On the eighth of February the bill was 
passed in the Senate over the president's veto ; the next day 
the bill passed the House also and thus became a law. 

The state legislature of Nebraska, which had been elect- 
ed in the fall of 1866, convened in special session February 
20, 1867, in response to the proclamation of Governor Saun- 
ders issued on the 14th of that month for the purpose of 
complying with the conditions imposed by the acts of Con- 
gress. The senate was composed of eight Republicans and 



166 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA • 

nine Democrats. A bill accepting the conditions for ad- 
mission was quickly passed by both branches of the legisla- 
ture. On the 21st they agreed to a joint resolution to send 
a copy of the act to the President and also one to John M. 
Thayer, who had been elected United States Senator, and 
then adjourned. 

On the first of March, 1867, President Johnson issued a 
proclamation declaring that *'the admission of the state into 
the Union is now complete." 

Union Pacific Railroad. — The Union Pacific Railroad, 
begun in 1863, was completed in 1869. This road, which 
passes through Nebraska from end to end, has been of vast 
importance to the state's commercial interests. It is now 
a double track throughout the state, and its splendid trains 
glide over one of the best road beds in America. 

Election of First State Officers. — In the Republican 
and Democratic political conventions of 1866, the following 
candidates were nominated for officers of the new state: 

Republican Democrat 

For Congress T." M. Marquette John R. Brooke 

For Governor David Butler J. Sterling Morton 

For Secretary (of 

State) John Gillespie CharlesW. Sturges 

For Auditor T. P. Kennard Guy C. Barnum 

For Treasurer Augustus KountzeSt. John Goodrich 

For Chief Justice... Oliver P. Mason William Little 
For Associate Justice Lorenzo Crounse B. E. B. Kennedy 
For Associate Justice George B. Lake Edward VV. 

Thomas 

The Republican candidates were elected, with the excep- 
tion of Oliver P. Mason. David Butler became the first 
governor of the new state on February 21, 1867, the date 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 167 

when the Nebraska legislature accepted the congressional 
terms of admission. 

Interesting Topics of Territorial Period. — Before pro- 
ceeding to study the statehood period of Nebraska history, 
there are a number of topics of the territorial times which 
can be read with interest and profit. 

The Advance Guards of Civilization. — The soldier 
and the missionary have been the advance guards of civili- 
zation and no history of the territory would be complete 
without some account of each. Nebraska not only fur- 
nished a large quota of soldiers for the Civil War but also 
had to protect her citizens and property from the marauding 
Indians. The Indian question in the Missouri Valley was 
largely influenced in early days by the attempts of the Brit- 
ish to retain control of trade with the Indians. The first 
military force that entered the upper Missouri country was 
sent there for the purpose of protecting the country and its 
fur trade against the British. 

First Military Post. — A military expedition under the 

command of Colonel Henry Atkinson went as far up the 

Missouri River ^ as "Camp Missouri," just below Council 

Bluffs, and there established a military post in the upper 

Missouri country, September, 1819. By the end of the year 

a strong fort and barracks for one thousand men had been 

erected by the troops. This post, afterward known as 

Fort Atkinson, was garrisoned by a regiment of infantry 

and a regiment of riflemen. On the 23rd of September, 

1820, Atkinson, now brigadier-general, and Benjamin 

O'Fallon, Indian agent, made a treaty with the Omaha tribe 

for a tract of land fifteen miles square around Council 

Bluffs. General Atkinson was commandant of this fort 

1 In the very early day, practically all travel "up the Missouri" 
started from St. Louis. 



168 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 



until 1823, when he was succeeded by Lieutenant-Colonel 
Leavenworth, who remained in charge until 1825. His suc- 
cessor. Colonel Woolley, was commandant until the fort was 
abandoned in 1827. 



^-^rtlKiif'iflflBlWi'/--;^.,. 




Generai. Henry Leavenworth 



Early Expedition Against the Arikaras. — The Arikara 
Indians ^ had attacked and defeated a company of volunteers 
under Colonel Ashley of the Rocky Mountain Fur Com- 

1 The Arikaras lived on the Missouri River within the limits of 
what is now South Dakota. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 169 

pany. Colonel Atkinson, with two hundred and twenty men, 
two six-pound cannon, and several swivel guns, left Fort 
Atkinson on June 22, 1823, to avenge the defeat. Colonel 
Leavenworth's force traveled partly on foot and partly in 
three keel-boats, and was forty-eight days in ascending the 
river to the Arikara village, a distance of six hundred and 
forty miles. Major Pilcher, then president of the American 
Fur Company and stationed at Fort Lisa at the time, over- 
took and passed Colonel Leavenworth and awaited him at 
Fort Recovery with a force of forty white men and several 
hundred Sioux Indians. General Ashley's command also 
joined Colonel Leavenworth at this place. The whole force 
then attacked the Indians on the 9th and 10th of August. 
The Indians abandoned their villages. The fighting was in- 
decisive and the casualties small. Colonel Leavenworth's 
command reached Fort Atkinson near the end of August 
without having subdued the Arikaras. 

Intertribal Warfare. — During the early days of travel 
across the plains military posts were an absolute necessity. 
Trouble between the whites and the Indians could be ex- 
pected at any time. There were constant intertribal wars. 
G. C. Matlock, agent at the upper Missouri agency, wrote 
that war is the natural element of the untaught Indians. 
The overlapping of hunting grounds, no doubt, had much to 
do with the constant turmoil among the tribes. 

Early Treaties. — On the) 16th of May, 1825, General 
Atkinson and Benjamin O'Fallon, government Indian 
agent commissioned to trade with the Indian tribes of the 
upper Missouri, left Fort Atkinson with an escort of sol- 
diers and proceeded up the river to a point one hundred and 
twenty miles above the mouth of the Yellowstone. The 
expedition arrived at Council Bluffs on its return in Sep- 
tember. Treaties were made with the numerous tribes who 



170 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

lived along the river. The treaties contained an agreement 
on the part of the Indians to arrest all foreign intruders 
and turn them over to an agent of the federal government. 
While the Indians were constantly at war with each other 
in the plains west of the Missouri, they were generally at 
peace with the white settlers until the whites, after the or- 
ganization of the territory, began to crowd in and encroach 




Pawnee Earth Lodge Vii^i^age, Genoa, 1875 

upon the game regions of the Indians. Consequently, pre- 
vious to the year 1854, serious disturbances on our frontier 
were infrequent. 

Posts to Protect Friendly Indians. — There were still 
tribes of wild Indians,^ and attacks were frequently made 
by them not only upon the white settlers, but also upon 
friendly tribes. In 1847 the secretary of war recommended 
the establishment of a small military post at the mouth of the 

1 These were Indians who did not enter into treaty relations with 
the government and did not receive government support. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 171 

Platte for the protection of the Omahas, Otoes, Poncas, and 
other weak tribes on the Platte and Missouri rivers, in con- 
nection with the post to be established near Grand Island, 
afterward called Fort Kearny. 

The Second Military Post in Nebraska Territory. — 
Fort Kearny was built in 1847 near the center of a tract 
which subsequently became the town site of Nebraska City. 
The fort stood too far from any line of travel, and the gov- 
ernment soon abandoned it. Meanwhile Congress had pro- 
vided for the establishment of military posts along the 
Oregon route. New Fort Kearny, the first of these posts, 
was formally established in May, 1849. The fort at that 
time was in command of the famous Colonel Bonneville, 
with two companies of infantry and one of dragoons. 

The Grattan Massacre. — In 1854 one of the worst 
tragedies in the history of our intercourse with the Indians 
occurred in the Platte Valley near Fort Laramie.^ A Brule 
Sioux Indian killed and appropriated a lame cow belonging 
to some Mormon emigrant. According to the story of the 
Indians, the cow had strayed into their camp, which was sit- 
uated on the Oregon Trail. The Mormon appealed to the 
commandant of the fort for pay for his cow.^ Lieutenant 
John L. Grattan with twenty-nine men and two 
howitzers marched to the Indian camp under orders to 
bring in the Indian that killed the cow. His friends, how- 
ever, refused to give him up. Lieutenant Grattan was 
young and not experienced with Indians. He ordered his 
men to fire the cannon and muskets on the thousands of 
Indians, men, women, and children. Before they could re- 
load their guns, these thirty men were mowed down by In- 

1 Within the limits of the present state of Wyoming. 

2 The government held itself liable for the depredations of its 
Indian wards. 



172 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

dian bullets and arrows, not a man escaping. Chief Bear 
was also killed. The Indians then broke into the govern- 
ment store houses and stole quantities of goods. Two white 
traders, Bordeaux and Chouteau, who had married Indian 
women and were living near, persuaded the Indians not to 
murder other white people. The Indians then scattered 
and rode throughout Wyoming and the Dakotas, everywhere 
urging other Indians to make war on the whites and drive 
them from their hunting grounds.^ 



1 This was the beginning of the great Sioux War, which lasted 
until the winter following the battle of Wounded Knee. This battle 
took place on December 28, 1890, in South Dakota, near the Ne- 
braska line, just north of Rushville, Nebraska. It resulted from the 
attempt to arrest the Sioux Indians for leaving their reservation. 
Thirty-two soldiers were killed and one hundred and fifty-six In- 
dians, some of the latter being women and children. The Sioux War 
covered a period of more than thirty years. However, on October 
27, 1877, five thousand Indians with their cattle and ponies left Ne- 
braska for their reservations in South Dakota, thus ending the dis- 
turbances in Nebraska. 



CHAPTER Xll 

Avenging the Grattan Massacre. — General William S. 
Harney, already noted as an Indian fighter, was sent in the 
fall of 1855 to punish the Sioux for the Grattan massacre. 
On the evening of September 2, General Harney's command 
csmped at the mouth of Ash Hollow which, on account of 
the water, wood, and shelter it afforded, had long been a 
favorite halting place for the California and Oregon emi- 
grant trains. This resting place of the emigrants was nat- 
urally under the eye of hostile Indians ; it was near here that 
General Harney found and nearly annihiliated the supposed 
murderers of Grattan and his men. According to local 
traders and Indian agents, Harney's achievement was an un- 
warranted butchery rather than a victory, but in any event 
the battle was a lesson to the hostile Sioux. 

The Battle Creek Campaign. — In 1859 it was reported 
that 30,000 Indians of the upper Missouri agency were rest- 
less and discontented. About the first of July messengers 
from Fontenelle^ brought news to Omaha that the Pawnees 
were committing depredations upon the property and out- 
rages upon the persons of settlers in the Elkhorn valley from 
Fontenelle northward. The settlers asked for immediate 
assistance. When the message came Governor Black was 
at Nebraska City, more than a day's journey distant. In the 
meantime. General Thayer, in command of the militia of the 
territory, proceeded to the place of the disturbance with the 
light artillery company of Omaha. The expedition over- 
took the Indians on the morning of^the 12th in the vicinity 
1 Fontenelle is a small village in Washington County. 

173 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 175 

of Battle Creek ^ and at once attacked them. They pre- 
ferred to retreat rather than make a stand. The campaign 
soon ended when the Indians promised to make amends for 
their past conduct and to remain peaceable in the future. 

The Sioux Uprising. — The great Sioux uprising in 
Minnesota in 1862, when six hundred and forty-four set- 
tlers and ninety-three soldiers were killed, left a hostile 
spirit among the Indians. In the spring of 1863 General 
Sully with three hundred and fifty soldiers went up the 
Missouri River from Sioux City to cut off the retreat of 
such hostile Indians as General Sibley might drive out of 
Minnesota and eastern Dakota. On the 3rd of September, 
General Sully engaged the Sioux, who numbered from 
twelve to fifteen hundred warriors. After a shary, short 
fight just at dark the Indians were routed with about one 
hundred and fifty killed and the loss of all their effects ex- 
cept their arms and their ponies. When the Nebraska men 
came up with the Indians they dismounted and fought on 
foot with Enfield rifles at sixty paces. There were among 
them probably the best shots in the world, and their fire at 
close range was murderous. The loss to the Nebraska regi- 
ment was two killed, thirteen wounded, and ten missing. The 
6th loWa regiment lost eleven killed and eighteen wounded. 

Indian Hostilities during the Civil War. — The Civil 
War required all of the military forces of the country, 
and in consequence Indian hostilities against the whites 
increased from year to year. In 1864 and 1865 murders 
and other outrages, on the upper Platte in particular, were 
numerous. The outrages extended through the westerly 
settlements of Nebraska and produced resentment against 
the federal government for neglecting to provide better 
defense throughout the territory. Even when the army was 

1 Battle Creek, Nebraska, is named from this Indian campaign. 



176 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

released from the Civil War, response to the Indian situa- 
tion was slow. 

Protection against the Indians. — In 1866 it was de- 
cided to take military steps to protect the West against the 
Indians. General W. T. Sherman made a month's tour 
of the plains in the summer of 1866 and proposed to restrict 
the Sioux to territory north of the Platte River and the Ar- 
apahoes, Cheyennes, Comanches, Kiowas, Apaches, and 
Navajos to territory south of the Arkansas River. This plan 
would have left all of southern Nebraska and northern Kan- 
sas free from wild Indians. It was gradually carried out 
during the next ten or fifteen years. 

The First Regular Military Organization. — Although 
Acting Governor Cuming issued a proclamation calling for 
two volunteer regiments since "different tribes of Indians, 
within the limits of the territory, have made manifest their 
purpose to commit hostilities upon the pioneers of Nebraska, 
some of them openly threatening to root out. the frontier 
settlements," the first military organizations were author- 
ized by the act of the second session of the legislature, 
January 23, 1856. The act provided for the organization 
of two brigades, the first from the North Platte section, and 
the second from the South Platte. The governor was com- 
mander-in-chief of these forces, and a major-general and 
two brigadier-generals were chosen at a joint session of the 
assembly the day following the passage of the act. John 
M. Thayer was chosen major-general ; Leavitt L. Bowen, 
brigadier-general of the 1st brigade, and Hiram P. Downs 
brigadier-general of the 2nd brigade. 

Nebraska hi the Civil War. — Nebraska did its part in 
the Civil War. While there was but one regiment of in- 
fantry and only a few companies of cavalry bearing the name 
of Nebraska, yet many Nebraskans joined the ranks from 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 177 

other states. The territory furnished 3,307 men and officers 
out of a total of 30,000 population. The 1st regiment of Ne- 
braska volunteers was organized in June, 1861, with John 
M. Thayer, colonel. The organization of the regiment was 
completed by the 30th of July, and on that day the first 
battalion, under the command of General Thayer, left 
Omaha by steamboat to join the forces in Missouri. General 
Thayer's regiment rendered splendid service during the Civil 
war. 

Missionari'es and Churches. — Owing to federal restric- 
tions against the white people entering the territory previous 
to 1854, the missionary work among the Indians was limited. 
The work usually took two forms, the day school which the 
children and sometimes the grown Indians attended, and 
the religious instruction in the church and Sunday school. 
In making treaties with the Indians for their lands, the 
government often agreed to furnish them a school, a black- 
smith,^ and later a "boss" farmer. The day school was for 
the purpose of teaching reading and other elementary sub- 
jects. Reading ^ was taught both in the Indian and the 
English languages. These government schools were few in 
Nebraska previous to 1854 but became more numerous and 
substantial after that date. 

The religious instruction was introduced by missionaries 
from the various churches. The churches sometimes under- 
took to support schools also, but without much success. 
Lack of funds was the chief drawback. One early mis- 
sionary in Nebraska paid $22.50 for logs for a school house 

1 The Indians received tools, farming implements, harnesses, etc., 
in these treaties, but they did not know how to use or to repair 
them. The blacksmith and the "boss" farmer were therefore neces- 
sities. 

2 The first book made in Nebraska was a collection of hymns by 
Reverend Moses Merrill for use among the Otoes. This hymn book 
was called Wdtwhtl Wdzvdklha Eva Wdhone'tl. 



178 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 



and then abandoned the work because there was no more 
money. 

The First Sermon. — Moses Merrill, a clergyman of 




Hadley D. Johnson 
First delegate to Congress from the unor- 
ganized territory, now known as the state of 
Nebraska. Elected October 11, 1853. 



the Baptist church, preached the first sermon in Nebraska. 
This was at Bellevue in November, 1833. Mr Merrill la- 
bored among the Otoes, who called him "The-man-who-al- 
ways-speaks-the-truth," until his death in 1840. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 179 

Samuel Allis. — Samuel Allis of the Congregational 
church came to Bellevue in the fall of 1834 as missionary 
to the Indians. He went to the Wolf Pawnees and traveled 
with them on their hunts two winters and one summer and 
learned their language and methods of living. In 1836 he 
was married, and both he and his wife worked among the 
Pawnees until 1846, when they were compelled to return 
down the Platte to Bellevue on account of a threatened at- 
tack on the Pawnees by the Sioux. 

Father Pierre J. DeSmet. — Father DeSmet of the 
Catholic church worked among the Indians of the West 
for thirty years after 1838. He devoted only a little of 
his time to Nebraska Indians, chiefly to the Sioux in west- 
ern Nebraska. He often preached to large out-door audi- 
ences and baptized great numbers. 

The Presbyterians. — The Presbyterian church ob- 
tained a strong foothold at Bellevue in 1848 by erecting at 
that place their principal mission building for the western 
Indians. Their work was largely with the Otoes, Omahas, 
and Pawnees, all of whom came to Bellevue to trade. How- 
ever, Reverend John Dunbar of this church had begun 
work among the Omahas in 1834. 

Churches Established. — Within three or four years 
following the organization of the territory in 1854, 'we find 
the Baptists, Catholics, Presbyterians, Congregationalists, 
Methodists, Christians, Episcopalians, and Lutherans labor- 
ing earnestly to establish their respective churches among 
the white settlers. They also worked among the Indians. 

Territorial Products. — Nebraska is first an agricul- 
tural state, but during the period immediately following 
1854 the products of agriculture were limited, as there were 
only a few people tilling the soil and these few were en- 
countering all the difficulties of farming in a new country. 



180 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

The tough prairie sod was hard to plow. After plowing it 
had to 'Vot" one or two yfears before it would produce well. 
Droughts, grasshoppers, and prairie fires all tended to retard 
agriculture. In spite of these difficulties, however, corn, 
wheat, and other standard farm products were successfully 
raised during the territorial period. Alfalfa and sugar beets 
have become profitable crops within recent years. 

Nature's Products. — During the early years of the 
territory, much food and other products were derived from 
the resources of nature. Wild fruit, fish, and game, espe- 
cially the buffalo, were much relied on for food. Buffalo 
skins and those of other animals were used for clothing and 
shelter in remote districts. In parts of the state stone was 
found for houses, while in other parts the settlers built 
*'dug-outs" in banks of earth, after the Indian fashion. 
Other homes were built of logs. During this period saw- 
mills began to turn out lumber from cottonwood and other 
native timber. 

Gold in Nebraska Territory. — Gold was discovered in 
the Rocky Mountains in 1859 near Pike's Peak and within 
the limits of Nebraska Territory. This section was later 
given to Colorado when that state was formed.^ 

Salt in Nebraska. — An effort was made during the 
territorial period to market salt from the salt springs in Lan- 
caster County. Considerable salt was secured for local use 
but the cost of production, owing to the limited deposits and 
lack of cheap fuel for refining, proved too great. The pro- 
ject was finally abandoned with two results: the salt "ex- 
citement" was largely responsible for locating the capital 
at Lincoln, and the excavations of the operators filled with 
water and later became a bathing and boating pool. 

1 The largest lead refinery in the world is in Omaha. It is known 
as the American Smelting and Refining Company. Gold, silver, and 
copper are also refined at this smelter. 




Xf;craska Orchards 



182 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA . 

Coal. — Coal was early discovered near Nebraska City 
and used to some extent by local inhabitants. There is still 
some coal mined in that vicinity, but the deposits are not 
sufficiently extensive to be of commercial value. 

A Prosperous Year. — It v^as not until 1859 that a good 
crop of corn ^ and other agricultural products was harvested. 
The corn was hauled to the Missouri River and sold at a 
good price, 85 cents a bushel or more. Enough wheat was 
also raised to make it certain that Nebraska climate was 
suitable for the production of this cereal. 

The Territorial Fair. — The first Nebraska Fair oc- 
curred in September, 1859, at Nebraska City. It might be 
called a thanksgiving fair for the victory won over the 
"Great American Desert." Robert W. Furnas ^ served as 
president. 

Orchards. — These were planted in Nebraska before 
1860. On September 19 1861, the Advertiser, speaking of 
peaches says, "They have done well in this section of Ne- 
braska the present season. Trees have 'literally broken 
down' [with the weight of fruit]." 

The Territorial Press. — The first newspaper published 
in Nebraska was the Palladium at Bellevue. The second 
was the Arrow at Omaha. The first number of the Palla- 
dium was issued July 15, 1854, at St. Mary, Iowa, acioss the 
Missouri River, but the paper bore the Bellevue headline. 
It was moved to Bellevue in November, 1854, The Arrow 
was published in Council Bluffs, Iowa, but bore the Omaha 
headline. It had its beginning and ending in 1854. Its editor 
was J. E. Johnson, a Mormon who came to Council Bluffs 

1 It must be remembered that we obtained our first corn from the 
American Indians. Coronado found Indians raising corn in 1541. 
Samuel Allis speaks of the Pawnee Indians having a good corn 
crop in 1835. 

2 Furnas was later governor of Nebraska, and his name was given 
to Furnas County. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 183 

in 1848. He later went with the Mormons to Salt Lake 
City, Utah. In his first issue of the Arrow he says. "Well 
strangers, . . . wherever in the wide world your lot may 
be cast, and in whatever clime this Arrow may reach you, 
here we are upon Nebraska soil, seated upon a stump of an 
ancient oak, which serves for an editorial chair, and the top 
of our badly abused beaver [hat] for a table.^ . . There 
sticks our ax in the trunk of an old oak, . . from which 
we purpose making a log for our cabin and claim. Yonder 
come two stalwart sons of the forest [Indians] bedecked in 
their native finery. . . . The shades of the rainbow appear 
on their faces. They extend the hand of friendship with 
the emphatic cuggy-cow (*how are you, friends') and, know- 
ing our business, request us by signs and gestures to 'write' 
in the Arrow to the great Father [the President] that the 
Omahas want what he has promised them, and they ask us 
also to write no bad about them." Thus ran part of the first 
editorial written in Omaha. 

The Nebraska City News, the third journal in Nebraska, 
was founded during 1854. During much of its career it has 
been under the management of J. Sterling Morton and of 
Thomas Morton. 

The first agricultural paper was the Nebraska Farmer 
published at Brownville by Robert W. Furnas. It was 
established in 1860, the year after the first agricultural fair. 
The Advertiser of Brownville was also owned and managed 
by Furnas during its early days. Its publication began in 
1856. 

The Omaha Daily Herald was started in 1865 by 
George L. Miller and D. W. Carpenter. It had only fifty- 
three actual subscribers at first. It was later consolidated 

1 The Arrozv was published when there were hardly any buildings 
in Omaha. 



184 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 



with another Omaha paper called the Evening World and 
became the JVorld-Herald, the leading Democratic paper 
of Nebraska, owned (1919) by Gilbert M. Hitchcock. 




Coi.. Robert W. Furnas and Stafi^ 
• Second Nebraska Cavalry, 1863 

The Nebraska Republican began its career in 1858. 
It supported Republican principles, but was later super- 
seded in the field of politics by the Omaha Bee founded in 
1871 by Edward Rosewater. The Bee remains in the hands 
of the Rosewater family, Victor Rosewater having suc- 
ceeded his father. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 185 

The Huntsman's Echo was published by J. E. Johnson 
at Wood River Center ^ in 1859. Johnson had moved from 
Omaha to Wood River Center in that year. This paper was 
published only about three years. 

The Fori Kearny Herald was in 1862 the paper pub- 
lished farthest west in Nebraska. Moses H. Sydenham 
was the editor. He had a trader's store at Fort Kearny and 
had this to say of his paper : 

Of course, the paper w^as published more to advertise 
the qualities and most favorable features of what was 
then known as the ''Great American Desert" than for 
anything else, and the expense came out of my [other] 
earnings. . . . There were no settlers from whom 
to receive subscriptions and no business men to help with 
their advertisements. ... At the head of my edi- 
torial column I had the picture of an aboriginal Indian 
on the war path, waving his long spear. . . . Be- 
neath the Indian I had the words "Passing Away." This 
picture was permanent with every issue. 

Other Papers. — There were many other newspapers 
during the territorial period. Some survived and some were 
combined with others, and some failed for want of support. 
The Omaha Nehraskan, the Florence Courier, the Nebraska 
City Press, the Deutsche Zeitiing, the Wyoming Telescope, 
and the Nebraska Daily Statesman were among those that 
helped shape the trend of early affairs. There were also 
several daily papers launched, but they usually found them- 
selves in advance of the times and gave up the struggle. 



^ Near the present Wood River. 



CHAPTER XIII 

ADMINISTRATION OF GOVERNOR DAVID G. BUT- 
LER, 1867-1873 

Beginning of the State Government. — The enabling 
act passed by the federal government April 19, 1864, author- 
ized the governor of the territory to proclaim an election 
of delegates to a constitutional convention. The election 
occurred on the 6th of June, 1864, but a majority of the 
voters declared themselves against the proposed statehood. 
In 1866, however, the territorial legislature submitted a con- 
stitution which was later ratified by the people. Governor 
David Butler assumed the duties of the office to which he 
had been chosen on March 27, 1867. 

Removal of the Capital. — The legislature was con- 
vened at the call of Governor Butler on May 16, 1867. The 
purpose was to pass such laws as the governor thought nec- 
essary for the new state. The most important work of this 
session, accomplished by the passage of an act approved 
June 14, 1867, was the decision to remove the capital .from 
Omaha to a location either within the county of Seward, or 
the southern half of Butler or Saunders counties, or that 
part of Lancaster County north of the south line of township 
nine. The new capital city was to be called Lincoln. The 
governor, the secretary of state, and the auditor were con- 
stituted a commission to fix upon a new site before July 15, 
1867. 

The commissioners were to select not less than six hundred 
and forty acres for the site of the town, have it surveyed, and 

186 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 187 

fix a minimum price on the lots of each alternate block. 
These lots were to be sold to the highest bidder, and the pro- 
ceeds deposited with the state treasurer as a state building 
fund. Out of this fund a capitol, "to be designed as part of 
a larger edifice," was to be completed before November 1, 
1868. 

Founding State Institutions. — The original bill carried 
a provision that the state university and the agricultural 
college, united in one institution, should be situated within 
the city, and the state penitentiary within or adjacent to 
the city. An attempt was made to take these institutions 
from the capital city and locate them a different places in 
the state, but without avail. 

Establishing Lincoln. — On July 29, 1867, the commis- 
sion chose nine hundred and sixty acres in Lancaster county 
for the site. On August 15 they made proclamations of the 
event, and the next day a survey of the streets, alleys, and 
lots WRS begun. Sale of the lots started on September 18, 
1867, but the demand was not active. The people were ac- 
customed to establishing their towns on streams and were 
doubtful of the success of the town located on a high and 
open prairie. Many of the citizens were opposed to taking 
the capital from Omaha, while others desired to have it lo- 
cated at Nebraska City. The Salt Creek valley near Lincoln 
proved unattractive in its appearance, though there was a 
hope that it might produce salt in profitable quantities. 
These objections all combined to make this first efifort at 
establishing Lincoln a real struggle. It became the practice 
to bid in lots and hold them for an advance without paying 
for them. The commissioners in their report admitted that 
they violated the law that the proceeds of the sale should be 
deposited in the state treasury. 

The Commonwealth (an early local newspaper) on 



188 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 



September 7, 1867, contains a notice of the capital commis- 
sioners to architects — dated August 28 — for plans and 
specifications for a building to accommodate the six execu- 
tive offices and the two houses of the legislature, the cost 




Block House at Old Fort Kearny, Nebraska City 



not to exceed $40,000. From plans for the capitol the com- 
missioners adopted those of John Morris of Chicago. 

During the fall of 1867 Lincoln began its growth as a 
city. A news item published at this time recites that "Lin- 
derman's portable [sawmill] down the Creek, and Young's 
steam sawmill west of Market Square, are busy sawing lum- 
ber. A great deal is coming in from Nebraska City, also. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 189 

Forty farm houses are in sight from the rising ground east of 
Market Square." 

Political Campaign of 1868. — Both the Republican 
and Democratic conventions were held at Nebraska City in 
1868 for the nomination of candidates for state offices. The 
political campaign that fall was bitterly waged. The Re- 
publicans won the election by majorities ranging more than 
two thousand. 

First Legislative Session at Lincoln. — The first legis- 
lative session at Lincoln convened January 7, 1869. The 
officers of both houses were unanimously elected. Edward 
B. Taylor of Douglas County was president of the senate, 
and William McLennan of Otoe County speaker of the 
house. 

Election of United States Senators. — The most excit- 
ing procedure of this session was the election of a United 
States Senator to succeed Tipton. In the first caucus Sena- 
tor Tipton commanded less than a third of the votes, but 
was finally elected over several opponents for the long term. 
Thayer was elected for a term of four years. ^ 

Subsidies to Railroads. — The most important ques- 
tion of the session was that of giving public lands to en- 
courage the building of railroads. A strong public senti- 
ment existed in favor of the general policy of subsidizing 
railroad companies with these lands, and the only important 
dispute concerned the extent of the grants and the manner 
in which they should be awarded. While the wisdom of 
subsidizing railroads and other private enterprises with 
public property is open to question, there were strong argu- 
ments in its favor in this case. Without railroads there 

1 The two United States Senators from Nebraska were at that 
time elected by a majority vote of the state legislature. Later this 
law was changed, and United States Senators in Nebraska are now 
elected by the people. 



190 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

could be only a limited market for the land and its products, 
and so no general settlement. The settlers who had cast their 
fortunes with the plains country could not afford to await 
the voluntary coming of the railroads. 

The measure adopted provided that two thousand acres 
should be given for each mile of road that any company 
would construct ready for rolling stock within the state ; but 



Winnebago Grave Yard near Winnebago Agency 

ten consecutive miles should be built within one year from 
the passage of the act and before any land could be awarded. 
To prevent injurious competition with the lands retained by 
the state, the railroad companies were prohibited from selling 
their subsidy lands for less than $1.25 an acre. To prevent 
"large tracts of land from being held for any considerable 
length of time, thereby retarding settlement and cultivation," 
the companies were required to offer annually at public sale 
all lands which they should still hold after five years from 
the time they were acquired. The act contained the conserv- 
ative provision that it should not remain in force more than 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 191 

five years. The Union Pacific and Burlington companies ob- 
tained limited participation by the provision that companies 
which had received grants from the federal government 
should be entitled to two thousand acres for each mile of 
road thereafter constructed, but only to the extent of twen- 
ty-five miles. 

The University of Nebraska. — Another important act 
of the session was that which provided for "the establish- 
ment of the University of Nebraska." The legislative act 
stated that the university was established "to afford to the 
inhabitants of this state the means of acquiring a thorough 
knowledge of the various branches of literature, science, and 
arts." The University was opened on September 7, 1871. 
There were twenty students in the University proper and 
one hundred and ten in the preparatory school. 

Report of the Commsissioners of Public Lands. — The 
commissioners appointed under the law of 1867 to select 
lands granted by the United States to the state reported that 
they had chosen 650,393 acres. Under date of 1869, John 
Gillespie, the state land commissioner, reported that there 
had been sold up to the close of the fiscal year, November 
30, 1868, 21,944 acres of school land at an average price of 
$10.53 an acre. The highest price was $28.82 for land sold 
in Lancaster County, and the smallest price, $4.40, for land 
in Sarpy County. 

Scandals in State Government. — Dissatisfaction with 
the work of the capital commissioners resulted in the pas- 
sage of a senate resolution requiring them to report the 
amount they had received from the sale of Lincoln lots and 
the number of lots which remained unsold. A joint com- 
mittee of the two houses was also appointed to investigate 
their transactions. The commissioners reported that they 
had received $296,268 for the lots and that six hundred were 



192 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

sold. The investigating committee found that the commis- 
sioners had sold land without authority of law ; that seventy- 
five acres for an asylum had been obtained on very advan- 
tageous terms, being a partial donation to the commissioners 
by some citizens who hoped to get the influence of the com- 
missioners later in building up a little town around the 
asylum, and that the commissioners had advanced about 
$4,000 to the contractors in excess of work and materials 
furnished. They also found in their report that no deeds had 
yet been given for lots and land bid off at the sales of 
1869 in the sum of nearly $150,000 and that the commis- 
sioners had promised time to buyers. There were other 
seeming irregularities, and yet the legislature, by a joint 
resolution, declared that the commissioners had acted in 
good faith in the discharge of their duties ; and that "in 
exceeding the appropriation in the amount of land and lots 
sold and in increasing the size of the public buildings now 
in course of erection at Lincoln, they have been governed by 
an honest purpose to subserve the best interests of the 
state." 

Butler's Third Nomination. — The Republican con- 
vention for 1870 met in Lincoln on the 10th of August. 
Governor Butler after a sharp contest was nominated for 
the third time. His principal competitor was Robert Fur- 
nas. 

Butler's Third Election. — A new political force made 
its appearance during the campaign of 1870 in the form of 
a third party organization, composed mostly of Republican 
dissenters and, in effect, chiefly an ally of the Democratic 
party. The political canvass was violent, even for a frontier 
state. The Democrats, led by an able press, opened up on 
their opponents in vigorous fashion and especially against 
Governor Butler, whom they accused of many irregularities 



194 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

in his previous two terms. They demanded the right to ex- 
amine the books of the administration, but were refused. 
The Democrats were aided by anti-Butler Repubhcans. 
Governor Butler won over his Democratic opponent, Crox- 
ton, by 2,478 votes. This was a reduced majority and in- 
dicated the strength of the attack against him. 

Industrial Conditions. — During the preceding two 
years 2,382,157 acres of land had been entered — 918,081 
acres as homesteads and the remainder as preemptions. The 
entries at the Lincoln land office were 877,129; at the Beat- 
rice office, 381,931; and at the Dakota City office, 737,176 
acres. Thus the growth of the North Platte and the South 
Platte sections was nearly equal. The Union Pacific Rail- 
road had sold 289,644 acres of its land grant in the state 
since July 28, 1869, and the Burlington Railroad 61,303 
acres. 

Various Kinds of Houses. — Some houses in early 
days were built of lumber which was sawed at the sawmills 
located along the streams where timber was most abundant. 
Many others were built of logs cut from the timber, often 
hauled to some distance, and put in place by the new owner. 
Out on the prairie where there was no timber except at 
a distance, the early homesteaders plowed up the prairie 
sod, cut it into short lengths, making a block of sod about 
12x18 inches in size, and laid these blocks into walls for a 
house. Other homes were made by digging into banks of 
ground and covering the top with brush or a few poles sup- 
porting dirt or sod for a roof. These "dug-outs," as well 
as the sod houses, were more comfortable in cold weather 
than the log or frame houses. The sod houses, especially, 
were often very neat and commodious. The roofs were 
sometimes made of lumber and shingles while the walls were 
plastered with the soft, moist chalk-rock found in some 
parts of the state. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 195 

Immigration. — When the Civil War was over and the 
government was able to give attention to the marauding 
western Indians, the plains of Nebraska became more invit- 
ing to eastern people seeking new homes and farms of their 
own. At the same time, the railroads were anxious to get 
their share of land under the grants they held from the 
government and were pushing out branch lines into various 
parts of the state.^ But immigrants did not all come by 
railroads. It is interesting to note that on May 17, 1871, 
as many as sixty-seven immigrant wagons passed through 
Lincoln. A little later the average number of wagons pass- 
ing daily through the capital city was estimated to be thirty- 
three. Nearly all of the immigrants sought farm homes in 
Nebraska. The settlements along the Missouri River in 
1854 were gradually extended, until even the western part 
of the state became dotted with homes. By the year 1900 
the "frontier" in Nebraska had disappeared.^ 

State Finances. — The financial showing of the state, 
as presented in the governor's message, was still unfavor- 
able. The governor pointed out that a large number of 
warrants on the treasury remained unpaid, and that they 
had been at a discount of from 10 to 15 cents on the dollar 
much of the time during the last two years. The assessed 
valuation of the state had increased from thirty-two mil- 
lion dollars in 1868, to fifty-three million in 1870. The total 
amount of public lands received by the state was 727,960 
acres. This was exclusive of the 2,643,080 acres of common 
school land, of which 72,578 acres had been sold at an aver- 

1 As the railroads pushed out into the state, small towns sprang 
up about every ten miles on each road, with their stores, lumber 
yards, banks, and newspapers, and kept pace with the development 
of the farming community. Counties were also surveyed, county 
seats established, and government land surveys were advanced far- 
ther and farther west, 

2 Frontier is the name of one of Nebraska's western counties. 



196 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

age price of $8.93 per acre. Of the 500,000 acres of public 
improvement lands, 257,312 acres had been awarded to rail- 
road companies as bonuses. 

Some State Institutions. — The temporary peniten- 
tiary, which had cost the state $6,661, was ready for occu- 
pancy in July, 1870. Convicts had been brought there from 
the county jails, where they had been previously I'^ept, and 
now numbered thirty-seven. Stout and Jamison, the con- 
tractors for the erection of the permanent buildings, em- 
ployed the convicts for 42 cents per day. A. R. Hoel, the 
first warden, was appointed April 1, 1870. The hospital for 
the insane was accepted November 8, 1870, and the patients, 
who had been kept at the asylum at Mount Pleasant, Iowa, 
and at various county jails in Nebraska, numbering over 
thirty, were now in their new quarters. 

Encouraging Immigration. — The early settlers real- 
ized the benefits to be derived from increased., population. 
Accordingly a state commission was organized to encourage 
immigration. The members resided in New York City. In 
1871 railroad excursions were running into Nebraska from 
eastern points. Trains brought a party of editors from Indi- 
ana and later a party of farmers and mechanics from the 
same state. In 1872, trainloads of passengers, numbering 
five hundred to seven hundred to each train, arrived in Ne- 
braska from Iowa and other states farther east. 

Electing a United States Senator in 1871. — The elec- 
tion of a United States Senator during the legislative session 
was attended by unusual circumstances. The Democrats 
were hopelessly in the minority. They decided to vote for a 
Republican candidate, Phineas W. Hitchcock, who was pit- 
ted against John M. Thayer and Alvin Saunders. The 
Democrats seemed especially anxious to defeat Thayer, the 
^'regular" Republican candidate. Hitchcock was elected. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 197 

Thayer was more objectionable to the Democrats than either 
of the other candidates because he more particularly repre- 
sented the national administration. After General Thayer's 
defeat h'e was appointed governor of Wyoming.^ s^ 

The First Arbor Day. — Nebraska, by nature, is large- 
ly a treeless state. On this account J. Sterling Morton early 
saw the necessity of increasing its timber acreage. On Jan- 
uary 4, 1872, he was successful in getting the state board 
of agriculture to adopt a resolution to appoint a day to be 
known as Arbor Day. The first Arbor Day in Nebraska was 
celebrated on April 10 of the same year.^ 

Impeachment of Governor Butler. — Sentiment in favor 
of the impeachment of Governor Butler had grown steadily 
in the minds of the members of the legislature and engaged 
their attention as soon as the senatorial election was out of 
the way. There were apparent discrepancies in the report 
of Governor Butler on public land sales and the deposit of 
the money received for the land. It appeared that Butler 
had withheld from the treasury certain sums that he had 
received for the sale of state lands. On investigation Audi- 
tor Gillispie reported that ''said money has never been paid 
into the treasury of state and no report has been given by 
the treasurer for said amount ; and further, that there is no 
entry upon the books of this office at this date showing such 
credit." When asked for an explanation, the governor ad- 
mitted the truth of the charges against him. He was con- 
victed before the senate and was removed from office. It 
appeared from the trial that the governor had loaned the 
state money to himself and had given real estate mortgages 
as security. 

1 When Nebraska was admitted into the Union as a state, Wyom- 
ing was made a territory and was governed from Washington as 
Nebraska had been. 

2 In 1885 the state legislature made the 22d of April, Morton's 
birthday, a legal holiday to be known as Arbor Day. 



198 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

By act of March 3, 1873, the legislature authorized a com- 
mission, composed of the governor,^ the secretary of state, 
and the treasurer, to settle all claims of the state against 
David Butler by taking from him a warranty deed for lands 
in lieu and release of all mortgages against him; but neither 
his residence nor his lands in Lancaster County should be in- 
cluded in the deed. On the 24th of April following, this 
commission reported that it had taken a deed to thirty-four 
hundred acres of land in Gage, Jefferson, and Pawnee coun- 
ties, which had been appraised at $7.00 per acre and which 
covered the amount of indebtedness and the interest at 10 
per cent. The session of 1877 expunged the records of the 
impeachment and removal trial. 

Impeachment of Auditor Gillispie. — Gillispie, after 
the impeachment of Governor Butler, incurred the anger 
of the governor's friends. A movement was soon on foot 
to impeach the auditor for alleged irregularities, which in- 
cluded the excessive payment of warrants, the unfair letting 
of printing contracts, and negligence in forcing Butler to a 
strict compliance with the law. Those who had opposed 
Butler were in the majority and they succeeded in preventing 
the vote on impeachment by breaking the quorum from time 
to time until both houses agreed to adjourn the session. 

The Burning of the Asylum. -^ The asylum for the in- 
sane was burned on April 17, 1871. The fire was thought 
to be of incendiary origin. Originally the building, which 
was to cost $50,000, cost $150,000. Some people asserted 
that the fire was intended to cover up poor construction. The 
insurance company offered to reconstruct the building on the 
original plans for $95,000. 

Constitution of 1871. — The chief care of the compilers 

1 William H. James, secretary of state, became governor on the 
removal of Governor Butler. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 199 

of the constitution of 1866 was to bring about statehood, and 
so they had contrived that it should resemble the territorial 
organic act ^ as closely as possible. The constitutional con- 
vention met in the hall of the house of representatives in 
Lincoln at two o'clock in the afternoon, June 13, 1871. A 
committee on membership was appointed and fifty-two mem- 
bers were accorded seats. The constitution which they 
framed was copied after that of Illinois. Five important 
sections were submitted separately to a popular vote, but 
only one, which provided for the submission of a prohibition 
proposition, was acted upon favorably. The constitution it- 
self was rejected at the election held September 19, by 641 
votes. 



1 The congressional act organizing the territory of Nebraska. 



CHAPTER XIV 

Campaign of 1872. — Henry C. Lett of Nemaha County 
headed the Fur ion ^ ticket as a candidate for governor. The 
Repubhcans nominated Robert W. Furnas for the same 
office. While not credited with as much native abihty as 
his opponent, Furnas had the advantage of mihtary prestige, 
and was a pioneer of Nebraska in horticulture and agricul- 
ture. The Republican party was again success tul. 

ADMINISTRATION: OF ROBERT W. FURNAS 
1873-1875 

Inaugural Address of Governor Furnas. — Governor 
Furnas, in his inaugural address to the fifth legislature, 
urged a revision of the constitution as soon as possible; re- 
commended the development of coal and salt deposits by 
the state; and insisted that the Indians should be removed 
from the state. 

Agitation for Capital Removal. — Members of the leg- 
islature who opposed Lincoln as the state capital sought at 
this session to locate it at some ether place. A majority of 
the legislature seemed at first to be in favor of the removal. 
On the 11th of February a bill was introduced providing for 
a commission which should have full power to choose a site 
of not less than six hundred and forty acres in any one of 
the counties of Merrick, Platte, Butler, or Polk ; divide the 
site into lots; and expend $150,000 of the proceeds of their 

1 A "Fusion" ticket is made up of candidates from each of two or 
more parties whose political principles are similar. In this cam- 
paign the "Fusion" ticket represented Democrats and liberal Re- 
publicans. 

200 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 201 

sale in the construction of a new capital. They were to 
bestow " a suitable name" upon the city to be thus estab- 
lished. It soon appeared, however, that the claims of rival 
communities would not permit them to unite on any one 




From an unpublished daguerreotype taken in 1855. 

Robert W. Furnas 

place. Lincoln was easily able, therefore, to hold the cap- 
ital. 

Prohibition. — In January, 1874, an attempt was made 
to form a political party in Nebraska to be known as the 
Prohibition party. The principal object was to prevent the 
manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors. This attempt 
was not successful, but those interested agreed to vote with 
the Democratic or Republican parties, the intention being to 



202 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

favor the party more inclined toward prohibition. This 
was the attitude of prohibitionists in Nebraska for many- 
years. Later, in 1874, a municipal temperance party was 
organized in Lincoln, and a temperance convention adopted 
resolutions advocating the organization of a Prohibition 
party. This was the beginning of a movement which finally 
culminated in state-wide prohibition in 1916. 

Indian Troubles. — Indians and trappers on the Loup 
River had a fight near Taylor, in Loup County, in which 
several white men and Indians were killed. Indians also 
committed constant depredations against settlers in south- 
western Nebraska. These Indian troubles were creating a 
strong demand that all Indians be confined to reservations 
in Nebraska or sent to Oklahoma. 

Farming in 1873. — Nebraska is first of all an agricul- 
tural state. When crops are affected, the people feel the 
immediate results. In 1873 there was an extensive drought. 
Prairie fires ran through the dry grass and often through 
the cultivated fields, destroying grain and buildings. Grass- 
hoppers also appeared in untold millions and ate the crops. 
In addition to those serious losses, Nebraska felt the evil 
effects of the panic of 1873, which swept over the entire 
country. Nebraska farmers stared almost hopelessly at the 
following market report : 

Wheat, per bushel, 40 cents. 

Corn, per bushel, 10 cents. 

Eggs, per dozen, 5 cents. 

Butter, per pound, 19 cents. 

Cattle and hogs, per hundredweight, $2.00 to $2.50. 

Corn was burned for fuel, as it could not be sold for 
enough money to buy coal. Some farmers gave Nebraska 
up as a farming country and moved away, but the majority 
stayed by their farms and continued to develop the state. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 203 

Farmers' Organizations. — About this time a farmers' 
organization, known as the Grange, came into prominence. 
The object was self -protection in buying goods and selling 
farm products. In many localities Grange stores were 
organized, but they did not as a rule prove successful. The 
Grange is still in existence (1919) in some localities. In 
late years (about 1885) the Farmers' Alliance became a fac- 
tor in trade. These organizations gave the farmer much 
prominence and a rightful position in the world of commerce 
but did not result in much, if any, immediate financial 
benefit. 

Since the advent of rapid communication by mail and tel- 
egraph, rapid transit by rail and automobile, and the edu- 
cative influence of daily papers, farmers, villagers, and city 
people have been drawn more closely together. The present 
farmers' organizations are more nearly along the lines of 
increasing the production, conserving soil and effort, and 
improving the quality of all farm products.^ 

Political Convention of 1874. — I'he state conventions 
of 1874 were held in Lincoln. Silas Garber of Webster 
County was nominated for governor on the Republican 
ticket, and James F. Gardner of Richardson County was 
nominated for the same office by the People's Independent 
party. The Democratic party nominated Albert Trux- 
bury of Otoe County for governor. The first Prohibition 
convention to nominate a ticket appeared this year. The 
Republicans won the election, and Garber succeeded Furnas 
as governor of Nebraska. 



1 The Farmers' Union devoted considerable attention to methods 
of selling farm products and buying supplies. 



204 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

ADMINISTRATION OF GOVERNOR SILAS 
GARBER, 1875-1879 

Capital Removal Again. — Even before the opening of 
the regular session of the legislature it was reported that 
an attempt would be made to remove the capital to some 
point nearer the center of the state. The people of Kearney 
went so far as to select a commanding site just north of the 
city for the capitol when it should be removed to their city. 
While the sentiment for a more central location seemed 
strong, differences among the supporters of the movement 
enabled Lincoln to hold the balance of power. 

Constitutional Convention. — In preparing for a consti- 
tutional convention there was some discussion as to whether 
the delegates should be appointed by the legislature or 
elected by the people. The latter procedure prevailed, and 
sixty-nine members of the constitutional convention were 
elected by the people April 6, 1875. While an attempt was 
made to ignore party lines in the election of delegates, parti- 
san spirit appeared in most counties. The delegates num- 
bered fifty Republicans, sixteen Democrats, and three Inde- 
pendents. 

Organizing the Convention. — The convention met on 
the 11th of May in the hall of the house of representatives 
in Lincoln. Alexander H. Connor of Buffalo County was 
temporary chairman, and Guy A. Brown of Lancaster 
County temporary secretary. The committee on creden- 
tials consisted of twelve members, one from each senatorial 
district. John Lee Webster of Douglas County was chosen 
permanent president. A committee of twelve was appointed 
to recommend a method of procedure. On the second day 
a committee on rules reported in favor of adopting the rules 
of 1871 with slight alterations. A contest for membership 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 



205 



occurred in three counties, and a committee was appointed 
to hear the evidence of the contestants. 

Convention Procedure. — The convention considered 
three plans of procedure. The first was to take the old con- 
stitution as a model and, through a small committee, make 
such alterations and additions as seemed desirable; the sec- 
ond was to work upon the rejected constitution of 1871 in 




Photo by S'. D. B>:frhr,-. 

In Western Nebraska in 1876 



the same way ; the third was to proceed to form a new con- 
stitution without any specific model. By the first two meth- 
ods most of the work could have been done in committee of 
the whole. The last plan was adopted, as it provided for a 
larger number of committees and permitted all members to 
take an active part in the deliberations of the convention. 
The report of the committtee of twelve was therefore re- 
jected, and that of the committee-on rules providing for 
thirty-two committees was accepted. 

The Constitution Ratified by the People. — The work 
of the convention was concluded on the 12th of June, 1875, 



206 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 



and was ratified at the general election on the second Tues- 
day in October by a vote of 30,202 to 5,474. Under the 
constitution of 1866, the upper house of the legislature con- 
sisted of thirteen members and the lower house of thirty- 
nine. The new constitution limited the senate to thirty and 




OraSSHOPPKR ScKXE, Pl^ATTSMOUTH, NEBRASKA, 1874 



the house to eighty-four members until 1880, when the sen- 
ate might be increased to thirty-three and the house to one 
hundred. This was done at the session of 1881. 

Constitutional Amendments. — • The constitution has 
been amended from time to time during recent years. The 
most important of these amendments provide for the initia- 
tive and referendum, set up a board of commissioners for 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 207 

state institutions, regulate municipal and miscellaneous cor- 
porations, and prohibit the manufacture and sale of intoxi- 
cating liquors. 

Growth in Population. — A report of the secretary of 
the state on the census showed that the increase in popula- 
tion of Nebraska from 1855 to 1860 was 542 per cent; from 
1860 to 1870, 327 per cent; from 1870 to 1876, 109 per cent. 
The population in 1874 was 223,657; in 1875, 246,280; in 
1876, 257,747. The federal census in 1880 gave Nebraska 
a population of 452,402, and in 1910, 1,192,214. 

Growth of the Schools. — Improved industrial condi- 
tions were reflected in the growth of the public schools. Ac- 
cording to the report of the superintendent of public instruc- 
tion for 1873 and 1874, there were 1,345 school houses in 
the state valued at $1,300,000, while, at the close of the fiscal 
year 1872, there were only 538 schoolhouses valued at $700,- 
000. The number of school children at the close of 1872 
was 51,123; at the close of 1874, 72,991. The apportion- 
ment of school money for 1871-1872 was about $370,000; 
that for 1873-1874 showed an increase of nearly $100,000.^ 

The Grasshopper Plague. — The grasshoppers, or 
Rocky Mountain locusts, during the years 1874 to 1876 
did much damage to Nebraska crops. The settlers feared 
that this pest might continue to visit the country year after 
year. The settlers did not know, however, that the grass- 
hoppers made visits to the plains country only at infrequent 
intervals. Early travelers in Nebraska refer to visits of 
the grasshoppers at intervals of from eight to ten years. 
In his famous Ash Hollow campaign in 1855, General Har- 
ney and his command, when encamped near Court House 
Rock, observed that the grasshoppers filled the air and were 

1 Write to Superintendent of Public In^ruction, Lincoln, Ne- 
braska, for a recent report. 



208 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

an inch thick on the ground. They destroyed "every blade 
of grass." W. A. Burleigh, in his report as agent of the 
Yankton Indians for 1864, said that crops were promising 
in that part of the country until the grasshoppers came in the 
latter part of July. The air was so filled with them as to 
produce a hazy appearance of the atmosphere, and every 
tree, shrub, fence, and plant was literally covered by them. 
In many places they carpeted the ground to a depth of from 
one to two inches. They appeared in a cloud from the 
northeast and, extending over a belt two hundred and sev- 
enty-five miles in width, passed on towards the southwest, 
devastating the country and leaving it as suddenly as they 
came. One who has not seen these grasshopper raids can 
have little conception of them. On one occasion the insects 
came in late June, when the corn was waist high and the 
small grain was almost ready for harvest. Suddenly the 
sun was darkened as by a cloud ; the pests were everywhere ; 
they fairly covered the fields until they hid the grain ; and 
by nightfall the raiders had stripped the fields and had 
moved on to other localities. 

Much of the southern and southwestern parts of the 
state had been settled so recently that the farmers had no 
surplus supply of grain. To be thus deprived of their crop 
in a day's time meant starvation or assistance. As many as 
ten thousand people in the state became dependent as a result 
of the grasshopper plague. It was necessary to furnish 
them with food and clothing for the year, and also with seed 
grain for the next season. The national Congress and the 
state legislature made appropriations and relief societies 
were organized. The farmers remained on their farms and 
tried again. After a year or two good crops came and the 
grasshoppers disappeared. They have not visited Nebraska 
since 1875. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 209 

Indian Troubles. — The Nebraska legislature in 1875 
adopted a joint resolution demanding the removal of the 
Red Cloud and Spotted Tail agencies from Nebraska. The 
Indians continued to be troublesome along the line of the 
Union Pacific from Fort Kearny westward. They also 
molested gold-seekers traveling through northwestern Ne- 
braska to the mines in the Black Hills. In 1874 six com- 
panies of cavalry and eight companies of infantry were sent 
to suppress a threatened outbreak at the Red Cloud and 
Spotted Tail agencies in Nebraska. On June 23, 1875, a 
treaty was signed at the Red Cloud and Spotted Tail agencies 
which relinquished the Indian rights. The removal of the 
Red Cloud and Spotted Tail agencies from Nebraska in No- 
vember, 1877, ended Nebraska Indian troubles; and after 
Red Cloud and his band were finally settled at Pine Ridge 
agency in 1878, that formidable chief became permanently 
peaceful. Most of the Pawnee and Ponca Indians were re- 
moved from Nebraska about this same time. Northern 
Nebraska was now open to settlement by the whites. 

Temperance Movement. — There was a growing con- 
viction that the traffic in intoxicating liquors should be ex- 
terminated. During this administration, the anti-saloon 
effort was put forth in the form of Good Templar ^ societies 
and Blue Ribbon Clubs. ^ Temperance people advocated 
signing a pledge to abstain from tasting intoxicating liquor. 
Groups of women held meetings in or near saloons urg- 
ing people to temperance. All of this effort had its effect 
in advancing the cause in Nebraska. 

Foreign Immigration. — During Governor Garber's 
term many colonies of foreigners settled in Nebraska. This 

1 The Good Templars were secret societies for advancing the 
cause of temperance. 

2 The blue ribbon was worn as a badge and signified that the 
wearer was a member of a club. 



210 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

was largely the result of the advertising which the immigra- 
tion committee and the railroads were giving Nebraska as 
the land of free homes. The immigrants represented Ger- 
many, Sweden, Bohemia, and other countries. They have 
made good citizens and are rapidly becoming Americanized. 
Improvements. — By the year 1878 the trouble with 
grasshoppers and Indians had passed and rains had become 
more frequent and abundant. Good crops were harvested 
and prices advanced. People began to feel encouraged and 
to improve their farms and look forward to better days. 
About this time the first telephone was installed in Lincoln 
and a phonograph was placed on 'exhibition. 

ADMINISTRATION OF GOVERNOR ALBINUS 
NANCE, 1879-1883 

Message of the Retiring Governor. — In his message 
Governor Garber reported as outstanding ten-year grass- 
hopper bonds of 1875 to the amount of $50,000. The gov- 
ernor also reported "that for some time past the outer walls 
of the capitol have been considered unsafe." Architects 
had been employed to examine the building, and ''they pro- 
nounced the north wall in danger of falling." It was re- 
built, but the time was not far distant when a new building 
must be erected. 

Enactments of the Eighth Legislature — Several im- 
portant laws were passed by the eighth legislature, which 
convened in 1879. It was provided that all impeachments 
of state officials should be tried before the supreme court, 
but judges of the supreme court should be tried by the dis- 
trict judges. A state commission consisting of three mem- 
bers was established, but no salaries were allowed the com- 
missioners and their expenses were limited to $500. A 



212 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

bounty of $2.00 was laid on wolves, wildcats, and coyotes 
whenever any county should vote to give such bounty. A 
contract for leasing convict labor at the penitentiary was 
awarded to W. H. B. Stout. Counties were required to 
pay $3.33 an acre for six rows of trees planted along half 
section and north section lines east and west and cared for 
not less than five years. County treasurers were made eli- 
gible to office for only two consecutive terms. The sum of 
$75,000 was voted to build the west wing of a new capitol, 
and the sum of $10,000 to establish and maintain a boys' 
industrial school at Kearney, provided that city would fur- 
nish a site of not less than three hundred and twenty acres. 
An act was also passed providing that when the term of 
the United States senators then serving should expire, the 
electors might express by ballot their preferences as to 
successors. 

Enactments of the Ninth Legisliature. — The ninth 
legislature, which met in 1881, made an appropriation of 
$100,000 for the purpose of constructing the east wing of 
the capitol. Acts were passed regulating railroad traffic, 
the location of railroad offices, freight rates, discriminations, 
and rebates. These acts all tended to secure better service 
for the public and equal treatment of various classes of 
shippers. A state normal board consisting of seven members 
was authorized. The state superintendent and the state 
treasurer were to be ex-officio members, and five members 
to be appointed by the governor. 

The Slocumb Law. — Probably the most important act 
of the ninth legislature was the enactment of the Slocumb 
law, designed to regulate the sale of intoxicating liquors. 
It applied directly to the operation of saloons and provided 
that a license should be paid the governing board, county, or 
city, under which the saloon was operated. The Slocumb 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 213 

law required a minimum license fee of $5(X) from each sa- 
loon, except in cities of over 10,000 people where the mini- 
mum was $1,000. The law did not regulate the maximum 
license fee. The smaller towns often charged $1,000 to 
$2,000 license for each saloon and used the money for school 
and other public expenses. This law was little changed 
until the adoption of the constitutional amendment in 1916 
prohibiting manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors 
within the state. 

The Railway Strike of 1882. — Early in 1882 the la- 
borers employed in grading the grounds of the^Burlington 
and Missouri River Railroad Company at Omaha struck for 
higher wages. The strike soon extended to other industries 
in the city. On the 9th of March the governor was notified 
by Mayor James E. Boyd of Omaha of a formidable riot in 
that city. The mayor asked for a military force to protect 
the people of Omaha from mob violence by strikers and their 
sympathizers. On the same day the governor received a 
similar request from the sheriff and a number of Omaha 
business men. The governor thereupon placed the nation- 
al guard under orders to be held in readiness for duty, and 
he made a formal requisition upon the President of the 
United States for troops to aid in suppressing domestic 
violence. The President responded to the requisition of the 
governor, and on the morning of the 11th of March a force 
of about six hundred men reached Omaha and were placed 
under the mayor's orders. The arrival of troops permitted 
laborers who had taken the place of the strikers to work 
without molestation. Rioting continued for several days, 
however, and the troops, both state and national, were sub- 
jected to tYtry sort of insult and abuse. The final restora- 
tion of order without great loss of life was largely due to 
the forbearance of the soldiers under the most exasperating 



214 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

circumstances. It is worthy of note that the great papers of 
the state, with the exception of the Omaha Bee, sympathized 
with the railroad company, as did also the state government. 
The Farmers' Alliance. — Between 1880 and 1890 the 
Farmers' Alliance, an organization of farmers for mutual 
protection and advancement of mutual interest, flourished in 
Nebraska. Discussions of important questions were held 
in homes and school houses. Politics received its share of 
attention and a new party came into being. This was the 
Populist party, which gained control of the state in 1890. 



CHAPTER XV 

Western Settlements. — Though the eastern part of 
the state developed rapidly, much of the western part re- 
mained unsettled until after 1890. Within a few years 
following this date railroads were built up the Republican 
Valley, the Elkhorn Valley, and into other sections of the 
state. Immigrants came with the railroads and sometimes 
in their covered wagons even ahead of the railroads. The 
last part of the state to be occupied was the Sand Hills re- 
gion. The settlers built their sod houses in the flat valleys, 
which were then covered with wild hay.^ 

The Cattlemen. — Farmers in the western part of the 
state had much trouble with cattlemen, who had driven 
their cattle from the south country to feed on the rich 
grasses of the prairie both summer and winter. The cat- 
tlemen often fenced in large ranches, each ranch embracing 
enough land to make many farms. Most of this land be- 
longed to the government, and was meant for settlers under 
the preemption, homestead, and tree-claim acts.^ The gov- 
ernment finally ordered all fences taken down, but the cat- 
tlemen did not obey at once. Sometimes the settlers cut 
the ranchmen's fences and the ranchmen destroyed, or let 
their herds destroy, the farmers' crops. There were many 
fights, and occasionally men were killed on both sides. ^ 

1 Wild hay furnished feed for live stock and, when twisted into 
long tight wisps or ropes, made very good fuel for cooking meals 
and heating the "soddy." In some cases special iron drums were 
used in which to burn the hay. 

2 Under the tree-claim act a settler could get 160 acres of land 
by planting ten acres in trees and caring for the trees eight years. 

3 See History of Custer County, published by Western Publishing 
and Engraving Company, Lincoln, Nebraska. 

215 



216 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 



From 1880 to 1884, there were some hard winters with a 
heavy snowfall. Thousands of cattle perished for lack of 
food and shelter. The hard winters were followed by heavy 




Si-Ri-Lai-Shar-Roon-u 
(They Make Him Chief) 



summer rains. These conditions discouraged the cattle- 
men, who began to give up ranching. Henceforth the set- 
tlers were free to establish their farms. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 217 

Woman Suffrage. — The legislature of i8§i passed a 
constitutional amendment relating to woman suffrage. It 
was submitted to the voters at the following fall election, 
but was defeated. 

Telephones. — Lincoln and Omaha were connected by- 
telephone as early as 1882, and other towns subsequently. 
The farm telephone, however, did not come into use until 
after 1900. 

Anti-Prohibition Convention. — An anti-prohibition 
convention took place at Omaha on September 11, 1882. 
Resolutions were adopted, including a declaration that "we 
will not support any man for any office who will not satisfac- 
torily pledge himself to oppose any and all attempts to force 
upon the people a prohibitory law." 

The Political Situation. — The Republican state con- 
vention met at Omaha on October 1, 1879. It was called to 
order by James W. Dawes, chairman of the state committee. 
Monroe L. Hayward of Otoe County was made temporary 
and permanent chairman; William M. Robertson of Madi- 
son County was chairman of the resolutions committee. 
The platform congratulated the country on the successful 
resumption of specie payments in that year and insisted that 
the credit of the government be kept as good as gold. 

The Democratic state convention met at Lincoln on Sep- 
tember 9th. Stephen H. Calhoun of Nebraska City was 
chairman of the resolutions committee. The resolutions as- 
serted that the Republican administration made treaties with 
the Indians only to violate them, thus turning the enraged 
Indians on unprotected settlers. The resolutions also de- 
nounced the Republican party for keeping a standing army 
to intimidate the voters of the South. The convention did 
not declare itself on the money question, but left that feature 
to the next national convention. 



218 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

Convict I^abor. — During the campaign of 1880 the op; 
position attacked the Republicans for making a bad contract 
with Stout relative to convict labor. J. Sterling Morton 
made a statement in the Omaha Herald that whereas until 
1871 Stout was paying forty-two cents a day for the labor 
of the convicts, the state now paid him sixty cents a day for 
taking care of them. The Republicans replied that Stout 
was paying the salary of the warden and other employees 
and was to build two hundred and forty cells at his own 
expense. They insisted that the penitentiary was costing 
less under the new contract than under the old. 

Re-election of Governor Nance. — In 1880 Albinus 
Nance was again the RepubHcan candidate for governor. 
The Democratic candidate was Thomas W. Tipton. Nance 
won by an increased majority over his rival. 

The Campaign of 1882. — The Republicans nominated 
James W. Dawes of Saline County for governor. The 
Democratic party chose J. Sterling Morton of Nebraska 
City for the same office. The Republican ticket was success- 
ful in the election. Dawes received 43,495 votes to Morton's 
28,562, although Morton ran well ahead of his ticket. 

ADMINISTRATION OF GOVERNOR JAMES W. 
DAWES, 1883-1887 

Political Unrest. — The administration of Governor 
Dawes opened with a growing sentiment in the state against 
monopoHes and a tendency to abandon the old parties. Peo- 
ple felt that the railroads, breweries, and other corporations 
were interfering too much in politics and asking too many 
favors. Farmers especially felt that their interests were 
being neglected by the legislatures and that those of the cor- 
porations were being favored. Several members represent- 
ing the new movement had been elected to the legislature of 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 219 




Scene ik Morton Park, Nebraska City 



t J&.'J^£^.W | 




January, 1883, but not a sufficient number to gain a majority 
on reform questions. The reform sentiment became stronger 
in the state in 1884-1885. 

The Campaign of 1884. — The Republican convention 
met at Omaha August 27, 1884. Considerable opposition 



220 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

to the renomination of Dawes for governor developed, but 
it was overcome. The platform declared strongly for the 
regulation of the railroads according to a fixed principle and 
pointed with satisfaction to "the efforts of our party" dur- 
ing the last session of the legislature to accomplish this re- 
sult. The platform also commended the efforts of senators 
and congressmen from Nebraska to secure immediate issue 
of patents to lands earned by the railroads under the national 
land grant, with the intent that these lands should be taxed. 

The Democratic state convention met in Omaha Septem- 
ber 1 1 ; James E. Boyd was chairman. The convention 
united with the Anti-Monopolist party ^ in the distribution 
of nominations, the Democrats taking those for the office 
of governor, secretary of state, attorney general, treas- 
urer, and two presidential electors, the remaining nomina- 
tions being conceded to their partners. J. Sterling Morton 
for the third time was nominated for governor. Dawes 
received 72,835 votes and Morton 57,634. 

The progressive forces ^ united in all of the congressional 
districts and by nominating progressive men gained promi- 
nence. While the Republican candidates won, it was by 
greatly reduced majorities. 

Railway Commission Established. — By 1884 a formid- 
able anti-monopoly and especially anti-railroad sentiment 
had been created in the Republican party. The legislature 
elected that year — the session of 1885 — established a rail- 
road commission consisting of the secretary of state, the 
auditor, and the attorney general. The actual work of the 
commission was done by three secretaries appointed by the 
board. It soon developed that the authority of this board 

1 The Anti-Monopolists were dissenters from the old parties. In 
this campaign they "fused" with the Democrats. 

2 Progressive forces, reformers, and anti-monopolists were largely 
the same. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 



221 



was merely advisory. Accordingly, a new commission was 
created in 1887. It was composed of the three executive 
officers named by the first act, together with the state treas- 
urer. The law creating the commission had its origin in a 
storm of protests against rebates, discriminations, and high 
rates. ^ The law was passed upon by the United States Su- 
preme Court in 1900 and was declared void. 




Home of T. Sterling Morton 



State Institutions Established. — The legislature auth- 
orized the "Nebraska Institute for Feeble-Minded Youth," 
to be established at Beatrice on condition that the city would 
donate forty acres of land for the institution. Fifty thous- 
and dollars was appropriated to construct and furnish the 
necessary buildings. A ''Hospital for the Insane of Ne- 
braska" was established at Norfolk, conditioned upon the do- 
nation by the city of three hundred and twenty acres of 

1 Rebates were given to heavy freight shippers and discrimina- 
tions were made in favor of them. -^ 



\. 



222 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

land. Arbor Day and Memorial Day were set apart as hol- 
idays. 

Arbor Day. — The state board of agriculture, at its 
January meeting, 1874, requested the legislature to make 
the second Wednesday of April of each year a legal holiday. 
Governors were also asked to issue proclamations exhorting 
the people to observe the day by planting forest, fruit, or 
ornamental trees. Accordingly, on the 31st of March, 1874, 
Governor Furnas issued a proclamation designating Wed- 
nesday, April 8th, of that year, as Arbor Day. This was the 
first official recognition of the event. Successive governors 
issued similar proclamations, annually, until the 22d day 
of April of every year — the anniversary of J. Sterling Mor- 
ton's birthday — was made a legal holiday by act of the leg- 
islature of 1885. 

Law" Affecting Railroad Charges Passed. — The first 
law directly aft'ecting railroad charges was passed by the 
legislature of 1885. The act divided railroad fares into 
two general classes east and west of the 101st meridian.^ 
In the eastern territory, Class A included roads whose gross 
earnings were as much as $4,000 per mile, and Class B those 
roads whose earnings were less than that amount. The 
fare in Class A roads should not be more than three cents 
per mile, and in the western territory not over four 
cents per mile. Not more than half-rate should be charged 
for children under ten years of age. On the day this bill 
was made the special order in the senate — January 27th — 
John M. Thurston for the Union Pacific and J. W. Deweese 
for the Burlington and Missouri River Railroad submitted a 
protest against the proposed act, assigning as objection the 
sparse settlement of the state. A bill prohibiting railroads 
giving free passes to office holders of the state was in- 

1 The 101st meridian is a little west of North Platte. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 223 

definitely postponed in accordance with the recommendation 
of the railroad committee. 

ADMINISTRATION OF GOVERNOR JOHN M. 
THAYER, 1887-1891 

Important Acts of the Legislature of 1887. — The act 

of 1885, fixing classified passenger rates, was amended by 
establishing a general rate of three cents per mile. An act 
was passed abolishing the railway commisssion and estab- 
lishing a "board of transportation." The Hatch law, an act 
of Congress appropriating $15,000 per year to carry on ex- 
periment stations, was accepted on behalf of the university ; 
and the organization of the university battalion was styled 
University Cadets. A tax of three-fourths of a mill was 
authorized for the years 1887 and 1888 to complete the main 
wing of the capitol building. A "Bureau of Labor, Census, 
and Industrial Statistics" was set up. A compulsory edu- 
cation law was passed. "An Asylum for the Incurable In- 
sane of Nebraska" was founded at Hastings, on condition 
that not less than one hundred and sixty acres of land should 
be given for that purpose. The sum of $75,000 was appro- 
priated for buildings. "The Nebraska State Board of Phar- 
macy," to consist of the attorney general, secretary of 
state, treasurer, and commissioner of public lands and 
buildings, was organized. The office of state oil inspector 
was also created. 

The Political Trend of 1888.— The Republicans re- 
nominated Governor Thayer without opposition. The de- 
clarations of the platform were mainly devoted to national 
questions, among them a denunciation of capital organized 
in trusts. The platform approved the acts of the railway 
commission. 



224 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

In the Democratic convention John McShane was nomi- 
nated by acclamation. The platform demanded reform in 
railroad rates, attacked the trusts, favored an elective rail- 
road commission, and adopted an anti-prohibition plank. 
Thayer received 103,983 votes to 85,420 for McShane. 

The Populists. — The Populist movement became very 
important by 1890. It evidently had its beginning in the 
Grange, the Alliance, and the Knights of Labor. The first 
organization of the Farmers' Alliance in the United States 
took place during 1879. Its principal activity was in the 
northwestern states. The first branch in Nebraska was or- 
ganized in Gage County in 1880. A state Alliance came 
into existence as a secret society at a meeting held in Lin- 
coln. A constitution and by-laws were adopted, together 
with a declaration of principles. The hard times ^ which 
began to be grievously felt in 1890 pushed the organization 
into practical politics. The call for a "People's Indepen- 
dent ^ State Convention" was issued over the signatures of 
the secretary of the Alliance and the Knights of Labor. The 
convention was called to meet July 29, 1890, at Lincoln, for 
the purpose of nominating state officers. All those who ac- 
cepted the declaration of principles published by the peo- 
ple's committee were invited to take part in the movement. 
The intention was to nominate a full set of state officers 
on a third ticket. 

The People's Independent Convention of 1890. — The 
convention met in Lincoln July 29. It was called to order 
by J. H. Powers of Hitchcock County, president of the 
State Farmers' Alliance. Powers was nominated for gov- 
ernor. 

1 Hard times were usually the result of dry weather and "tight 
money," or low prices for farm products. 

- "Independent" meant independent of the parties, Democratic and 
Republican. 



i 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 225 

The platform declared that our financial system should be 
reformed by the restoration of silver to its old time place 
in our currency and its free and unlimited coinage on an 
equality with gold, and by increasing money circulation until 
it should reach the sum of $50 per capita. Land monopoly 
should be destroyed either by elimination of ownership or 
by graduated taxation. Public ownership and operation of 
railroads and telegraphs, the reduction of freight rates in 
Nebraska to a level with Iowa rates, reform of the tariff, 
eight hours a day for labor except in agriculture, and the 
Australian ballot system were other reforms demanded. 
A few years later William Jennings Bryan accomplished the 
definite fusion of Populism with the Democratic party. 

The Campaign of 1890. — The Populists held imposing 
meetings at which their favorite orators spoke with great 
fervor. At a Wymore mass meeting in September there 
were 1,015 teams and 9,000 people in Hne"by actual count"; 
at Hastings the same week there were 1,600 teams and 
12,000 people. A demonstration at Lincoln in crowds and 
pageantry rivaled a circus parade. Though the temper of the 
movement was overheated and the public speeches some- 
times visionary, the people knew what they wanted. Within 
twenty years their demands — except as to the money policy 
— were substantially comphed with so far as the forms of 
law could grant them. In the election Boyd, the Demo- 
cratic candidate, received 71,331 votes, and Powers, the 
Populist, 70,187, while Richards, the Republican nominee, 
fell to 68,878. The remainder of the Republican ticket 
was elected. 

The Defeat of the Prohibition Amendment. — The pro- 
hibition amendment to the constitution submitted at this 
election was strongly contested. It was claimed that the 
vote of Douglas County was corruptly swollen to secure the 



226 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

defeat of the amendment. For the whole state, the vote stood 
82,292 for and 111,728 against. The vote in Douglas 
County was 1,555 for and 23,918 against.^ 

Canvass of the Vote. — The canvass of the vote by the 
legislature according to the constitution was an exciting epi- 
sode. The two houses met in joint session on the 7th of 
January. Lieutenant— Governor Meiklejohn, president of 
the senate, announced the purpose of the joint convention. 
The speaker of the house said he had in his hands the re- 
turns of the several counties of the votes cast for the state 
officers. A member offered resolutions setting forth that 
contests were pending before the joint convention between 
John H. Powers, Independent candidate for governor, 
and James E. Boyd, Democratic candidate, and between 
the Republican and the Independent candidates for the other 
state offices. The confusion in regard to the proper pre- 
siding officer was finally remedied by placing the speaker 
of the house in charge. In joint convention the Democrats 
and Republicans greatly outnumbered the Populists, and it 
was the part of politics for these forces to stand together, 
for by so doing they could control the situation. On the 
26th of January the senate sustained the election of James 
E. Boyd and appointed a committee to wait upon him and 
ask if he had a message to deliver and to appoint a time 
to hear it ; the house was asked to concur. The house final- 
ly, on the 4th of April, concurred. 

Indian Ghost Dance Troubles. — In the fall of 1890 
there was an outbreak of the Sioux Indians at the Pine 
Ridge agency in South Dakota just north of Cherry, Sher- 
idan, and Dawes counties. Hunger and discontent together 

1 The vote of a large city (Omaha in this case) is usually favor- 
able to the saloon. The amendment would not have carried, how- 
ever, even without Douglas County. A prohibition amendment did 
not carry in Nebraska until 1916. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 227 

^vith the influence of a young Piute Indian were responsible 
for the 'outbreak. The Indian in question had Hved for 
some time with a white family in Nebraska and had gained 
a confused knowledge of the Christian religion which led 
to his assuming the character of the Messiah. Many of 
the northwestern Indians believed in him. He claimed to 
have received from God a revelation of the ghost dance.^ 

The Beginning of Trouble. — The first mutterings of 
dissatisfaction came from Pine Ridge. This is the largest 
of the Sioux agencies, having six thousand of the wildest 
and most warlike Indians of the Sioux tribe. Pine Ridge 
is remote from white settlements and joins the Rosebud 
reservation on the west, where there were 4,000 more Sioux 
of about the same condition and temper. The local agents 
declared the situation beyond their control, and the war de- 
partment was called upon for assistance. Upon the appear- 
ance of the troops a large number of Indians of the Rosebud 
and Pine Ridge agencies, led by Short Bull, Kicking Bear, 
and others, left their homes and fled to the Bad Lands north 
of the White River in South Dakota. In their flight they 
destroyed the homes of the friendly Indians and forced 
many of the latter to follow them. They succeeded also in 
capturing a large portion of the agency beef herd.^ Others 
soon joined them until they had a formidable band of about 
3,000 Indians. 

The Death of Sitting Bull. — The ghost dance had gen- 
erally been discontinued on the reservations, excepting at 

1 The ceremonies of the ghost dance began with a fast for about 
two days. Then followed a sweat bath. The Indians went into 
their huts or tents, poured water on hot stones, and bathed them- 
selves in the steam. Afterwards they danced about violently in 
crowds and called on the "Great Spirit" for help. 

~ The beef herd is a herd of cattle furnished by the government 
to the Indians. They are supposed to care for the cattle, and to 
kill a sufficient number to keep themselves supplied with beef. 



228 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

Sitting Bull's camp on the Grand River, and at Big Foot's 
camp on the Cheyenne. The presence of troops had stopped 
the dance near the agencies. In December matters seemed 
to be quieting down, but the agents advised that it would be 
necessary to remove the leaders, among whom was Sitting 
Bull, the leading spirit in the Custer massacre of 1875. 
There was no doubt that he was plotting trouble at this time. 
It was at his camp and on his invitation that Kicking Bear 
had organized the ghost dance. On the 12th of December 
came the order to arrest Sitting Bull. Colonel Drum of 
Fort Yates was directed to make it his personal duty. 
The arrest was to be made by the Indian police assisted, if 
necessary, by the troops. At daybreak on December 15th, 
1890, the police and volunteeers, numbering about forty men 
in all, surrounded Sitting Bull's house. They found Sitting 
Bull asleep, arrested him, and told him that he must go to the 
agency. At first he consented, then refused. In the mean- 
time his* followers to the number of about one hundred and 
fifty had gathered, and offered resistance. The fight lasted 
only a few minutes but with terribly fatal results. Six police- 
men were killed, including officer Bull Head. The Indians 
lost eight killed, including Sitting Bull and his seventeen- 
year-old son, Crow Foot, with several wounded. During the 
fight the women attacked the police with knives and clubs, 
but notwithstanding the excitement the Indians were dis- 
armed and placed under guard. 

The Battle of Wounded Knee. — On the morning of 
December 29, 1890, preparations were made to disarm all 
the Indians preparatory to taking them to the agency and 
thence to the railroad. In obedience to instructions, the 
Indians had pitched their tepees on the open plain surround- 
ed on all sides by soldiers. In the center of the camp the 
Indians had hoisted a white flag, a sign of peace and a guar- 



230 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

antee of safety. Behind the camp on a sUght rise was 
posted a battery of four Hotchkiss machine guns trained di- 
rectly on the camp. In front, behind, and on both flanks 
were posted various troops of cavalry, together with the 
friendly Indian Scouts. 

Shortly before eight o'clock in the morning the warriors 
were ordered to come out of the tepees and give up their 
arms, which they seemed unwilling to do, and a detachment 
of soldiers was ordered to search the tents. After a thor- 
ough search they returned with about forty rifles. The 
search had consumed considerable time and created a great 
deal of excitement among the women and children, as the 
soldiers found it necessary to overturn the furniture of the 
tepees and, in some instances, drive out the. inmates. All 
of this had its effect on the warriors, who were wrought up 
to a nervous tension and did not know what was coming 
next. While the soldiers had been searching for guns. Yel- 
low Bird, a medicine man, had been walking up and down 
among the Indians, blowing on an eaglebone whistle and 
urging them to resistance. He told them that the soldiers 
would become weak and powerless and that the "ghost 
shirts" which most of the Indians wore would resist the 
bullets of the soldiers. 

As one of the soldiers attempted to raise a blanket of a 
warrior. Yellow Bird stooped and threw a handful of dirt 
into the air. This was the signal for hostilities to begin. 
A young Indian, said to be Black Fox, then drew a rifle from 
under his blanket and fired at the soldiers. They immedi- 
ately answered with a volley into the group of warriors, and 
so near were they that their guns were almost touching. 
A hand-to-hand fight with knives and revolvers followed, 
the Hotchkiss guns trained on the camp now opened fire 
and sent a storm of bullets among the women and children 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 231 

who gathered in front of the tepees to watch the battle. In 
a few minutes one hundred and fifty-six Indians, men, wo- 
men, and children, and thirty-two soldiers were lying dead 
or wounded. The tepees had been torn down in the fight 
and some were burning above the helpless wounded. The 
surviving handful of Indians fled in panic to a near-by 
ravine, pursued by the maddened soldiers and followed by 
a raking fire of the guns. Later in the winter, the surviving 
Indians i:ame into the town and surrendered. 

The Finding of Zintkala Nuni (Lost Little Bird). — On 
January 1, 1891, details of troops were sent out from the 
Agency to gather and bury the Indian dead and to bring in 
the wounded who had lain upon the field for nearly four 
days without protection or assistance. There had been a 
heavy snowstorm, ending in extreme cold on the third day 
after the battle, and many of the wounded men and women 
were found badly frozen. Some ninety warriors were found 
dead on the field in the circle near the front of Big Foot's 
tent ; but most of the women and children were found killed 
or wounded from a quarter to a half mile from the camp, 
showing that they had attempted to escape after the fight 
began. A pathetic incident was the finding of a four months' 
old Indian girl by the side of her dead mother. She was 
afterwards adopted by Brigadier General L. W. Colby, who 
was in the command of the Nebraska militia at that time. 
She was named Marguerite Elizabeth, and the Indian name, 
Zintkala Nuni, which means "Lost Little Bird." 

Beet Sugar Industry. — ■ Sugar beets began to attract 
attention as a Nebraska product in 1890. In this year a 
sugar beet factory was built at Grand Island. About twenty 
car loads of machinery were required for the factor}^ Later 
factories were built in Scotts Bluff county, and other places. 
The Platte Valley is well adapted to the growth of beets and 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 233 

many are now raised there and shipped to the Nebraska 
sugar factories. The principal obstacle to the beet sugar 
business is lack of sufficient and dependable labor. Those 
who are raising beets consider the business profitable. 

Alfalfa. — About the year 1890 alfalfa was introduced 
into the state. It is one of the greatest producers in the 
world, both as to quality and quantity. In Nebraska from 
two to four cuttings per year can be had, depending on the 
climate and rainfall. Alfalfa makes the livestock industry, 
Nebraska's chief asset, very productive and dependable. The 
hay itself is readily marketable at high prices.^ 



^ In 1916 a company was organized in Omaha, with a factory 
across the river in Council Bluffs, Iowa, to manufacture alfalfa 
products for hitman food. Its principal output is alfalfa syrup, 
candies, and tea. The syrup has proved especially satisfactory. 



CHAPTER XVI 

ADMINISTRATION OF GOVERNOR JAMES E, 

BOYD, 1891-1893 

The Message of Governor Boyd. — On the 6lh day of 
February, 1891, Governor Boyd delivered his message to 
the legislature. He counseled acceptance of the decision of 
the people against the prohibition of the liquor traffic, and 
gave cautionary advice in regard to railroad regulations. 
**If your honorable body, however, should decide to take 
this matter in hand, I would respectfully suggest that your 
work in this direction be confined to a limited number of 
commodities in carload lots, such as coal, grain, live stock, 
lumber and others." 

Important Acts of the Legislature of 1891. — Probably 
the most important act of this session was the passage of 
an Australian ballot act which had been advocated by both 
of the old parties. Congressional districts were re-appor- 
tioned and the number raised from five to six ; a state board 
of health was established; and a ''Girl's Industrial School" 
was established at Geneva, on condition that forty acres of 
land should be furnished for the site. An appropriation of 
$40,000 was made for the erection of buildings and main- 
tenance. The sum of $100,000 was appropriated for the im- 
mediate relief of the drought stricken counties of the state. 

The Boyd Contest. — Governor Thayer held office for 
eight days beyond his term, pending the decision of the 
legislature as to Boyd's citizenship. After the legislature of 
1891 had decided in Boyd's favor, Thayer applied to the 

234 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 235 

supreme court for writ to oust Boyd. The court advised 
Thayer to yield the office to Boyd, but in May the court 
issued a judgment of ouster against Boyd and Thayer was 
reinstated. It appeared at the trial that Boyd's father came 
from Ireland and to'ok out his first naturalization papers in 
1890 after the governor-elect had arrived at legal age. The 




Falls of the North Loup River 
Plunge, about twelve feet; wi,dth, forty to fifty feet 

attainment of citizenship by the father did not apply to the 
son, and the supreme court declared his election invalid. 
An appeal was then taken to the United States Supreme 
Court. It decided, February 1, 1892, that when Nebraska 
was admitted as a state Boyd was a resident of it and there- 
fore became a citizen by adoption. 

The Rise of William Jennings Bryan. — The Demo- 
cratic convention which met April 13, 1892, at Omaha, was 
one of the most exciting political conventions ever held in 
the state. By this time Bryan had become a factor in poli- 



236 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

tics. Through his personal charm, the fire and spirit of 
youth and conviction, and his great abihty as a pubHc 
speaker, he was able to overcome the tremendous odds 
against his financial theory of the "free and unlimited coin- 
age of silver." At the time Bryan began to advocate this 
doctrine, the majority of his party was loyal to Grover 
Cleveland and approved Cleveland's conservative attitude 
dh the money question. At the Lancaster County ^ conven- 
tion, held for the purpose of choosing delegates to the state 
convention, there was a very heated contest between the 
Cleveland Democrats and the followers of Bryan. The 
former were in the majority, but, being unwilling to deal 
too harshly with so promising and popular a member of the 
party as Bryan had become, placed him upon the delegation. 
At the state convention Bryan was given a place on the 
resolutions committee. The platform makers merely en- 
dorsed the national platform and said nothing specific about 
the money question. Bryan, in a minority report, introduced 
an additional resolution that **We declare ourselves in favor 
of the free coinage of silver." Half an hour was allowed 
each side for the debate. Bryan was granted all of the 
time for the affirmative. After the roll call the chairman 
announced that Bryan's amendment was defeated. 

Bryan continued to gain in strength and prominence in 
the party and in state and national politics until 1896, when 
he was nominated by the Democratic party on a free silver 
platform for the presidency of the United States. 

Politics of 1892. — The Republican convention nomi- 
nated Lorenzo Crounse of Omaha for governor. The plat- 
form declared in favor of an elective railway commission 
empowered to fix passenger and freight rates, and for postal 
telegraph and savings banks. 

1 Lancaster County of which Lincoln is the county seat is Bryan's 
home. 



238 SCHOOL HISTORY OF XE15RASKA 

The People's Independent party nominated Van Wyck for 
s^overnor. The platform demanded a reduction of freight 
rates to the Iowa level and other regulations and reforms. 

J. Sterling Morton was again the nominee of the Demo- 
cratic party. A reaction against Governor Boyd had set in, 
largely because of his veto of the maximum railroad freight 
rate bill. All three of the candidates for governor entered 
with spirit into the campaign, Crounse and Van Wyck en- 
gaging in joint discussion all over the state. Crounse re- 
ceived 78,426 votes; Van Wyck 68,617; Morton 44,195. 
The Republicans lost three of the six congressional districts. 
William Jennings Bryan, Democrat, won in the first; 
William A. McKeighan, People's Independent, won in, the 
fifth, and Omer M. Kem/ People's Independent, won in the 
sixth. 

ADMINISTRATION OF GOVERNOR LORENZO 
CROUNSE, 1893-1895 

Industrial Conditions and Drought. — Governor 
Crounse's administration was unfortunate in that it occurred 
at the time of the great financial panic of 1893. This 
period of national history was marked by scarcity of money, 
surplus of labor, low wages, strikes, and low prices for farm 
products. All over the country numbers of banks and mer- 
chants failed, while laborers in the cities could scarcely get 
enough to eat because they were working for very low wages 
or were forced into idleness by lack of employment. Groups 
of idle men talked over their unfortunate condition and 
large numbers of them, almost armies, marched across the 
country to Washington to ask Congress for relief. 

Conditions in Nebraska were further aggravated by 

^ Kem lived in a commodious sod house in Custer County. He is 
said to be the first Congressman elected from a sod house. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 239 

drouth. The repeated shortage of rainfall from 1890 to 
1894 was disastrous to crops, especially in the western por- 
tion of the state. On account of these losses a large number 
of people became dependent upon public charity, as In the 
period of the grasshoppers. The legislature of 1891 author- 
ized the issue of state bonds to the amount of $100,000, for 
the purchase of seed grain and other supplies to be distrib- 
uted through a board of relief to those who had lost their 
crops. The legislature of 1895 appropriated $50,000 for food 
and clothing and $200,000 for the purchase and distribution 
of seed and feed for teams. County boards were also author- 
ized to issue bonds and use surplus county funds for the 
relief of the distressed in getting their crops started again. 
In 1891 supplies were distributed to about 8,000 families in 
thirty-seven counties. In 1895 about 30,000 families in 
sixty-one counties were assisted. Donations amounting to 
thousands of dollars were received from people in all parts 
of the country. During this period many settlers abandoned 
their holdings and left the western part of the state. Empty 
houses stood on hundreds of farms. 

Further Reform Movement. — In his inaugural address 
Governor Crounse advocated economy in expenditures of 
state money and a firm but wise control of railroads. Dur- 
ing his administration some question arose as to the amount 
of school money in the state treasury. There was supposed 
to be over a million dollars which had been derived from the 
sale of state school lands. ^ Crounse took steps to have the 

1 The United States had given to Nebraska sections sixteen and 
thirty-six in every township. This land comprised about 3,000,000 
acres and all income from its sale or rent was to be used for school 
expenditures. About one million acres have been sold and the pro- 
ceeds placed in the state treasury. Nearly two million acres remain 
unsold. The rent from these two million acres goes, with the inter- 
est on the money received from the land sold, to the schools of the 
state. The state of Nebraska has one of the best school funds in the 
Union, 



240 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

exact amount on hand ascertained and then safely invested 
in good securities. 

The legislature passed a joint resolution asking Congress 
to call a convention for the purpose of amending the con- 
situation so as to provide for the election of United States 
senators by popular vote. 

World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago. — The legis- 
lature of 1893 made an appropriation of funds to meet the 
expenses of Nebraska's display at the World's Exposition 
in Chicago. Nebraska products, despite the drouth and hard 
times, did credit to the state. 

Allen Elected United States Senator. — The legisla- 
ture of 1893 elected William V. Allen United States Sena- 
tor. Allen belonged to the People's Independent party, which 
now had two congressmen and one senator in the national 
Congress. He stood for government ownership of railroads 
and other public service corporations. 

Politics of 1894. — The Populist or People's Independ- 
ent convention w^as held August 24, 1894, at Grand Island- 
William L. Greene of Buffalo County was chairman. Silas A. 
Holcomb of Custer County was nominated for governor. 
The resolutions demanded the free and unlimited coinage of 
silver at the ratio of 16 to 1 ; municipal ownership of public 
works ; liberal pensions for old soldiers and sailors ; national 
encouragement for irrigation ; compulsory arbitration of la- 
bor disputes ; a new maximum freight rate law or the 
enforcement of the existing law ; and the immediate relief of 
sufferers from the drouth. The repeal by Congress of the 
purchasing clause of the Sherman silver act was denounced 
as treason. 

The Democratic convention met September 26 at Omaha. 
William Jennings Bryan was unanimously nominated for 
United States Senator. The convention platform declared 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 241 

for the free and unlimited coinage of silver at the ratio of 
16 to 1 without waiting for the consent of any other nation ; 
tariff reform; and the election of United States senators by 




IS-SAI-LU-RAI-KAR-IK-U 

(Dwell in Sight) 

direct vote of the people. Silas A. Holcomb was nominated 
for governor. About fifty delegates, however, bolted the 
convention upon his nomination. Other candidates were 



242 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

divided with the PopuHsts. The "fusion" of the People's 
Independent and Democratic parties was thus effected. 

The Republican convention met in August at Omaha. 
Captain C. E. Adams ^ of Superior was made chairman of 
the convention. Thomas J. Majors received the nomination 
for governor. Party lines were shattered in the election. 
The Omaha Bee bitterly opposed Majors on the Republican 
side, and many Democrats who opposed fusion voted the 
Republican ticket. Silas A. Holcomb was elected governor 
over Majors by a majority of 3,702. With this event fusion 
came into power in Nebraska. 

Bryan-Thurston Campaign. — The senatorial cam- 
paign of 1894 was enlivened by the joint debates of John M. 
Thurston and William Jennings Bryan. Perhaps these two 
men represented the best platform campaigners the parties 
have produced. Thurston was elected by the legislature, as 
the Republicans were in the majority. 

ADMINISTRATION OF SILAS A. HOLCOMB 
1895-1899 

Length of Term. — Holcomb served as governor four 
years, being re-elected in the fall of 1896. 

Shortage of State Funds. — Further investigation of 
the school fund was carried on with the result that a shortage 
of over $500,000 of the state funds was discovered. This 
money had been lost or stolen. ^ Bartley was state treasurer 
at this time and bore the brunt of the disaster. He was tried 

1 Captain Adams is now (1918) Commander-in-Chief of the Grand 
Army of the Republic. 

2 Laws governing state funds were formerly not so strict as they 
are now. Treasurers often loaned public funds to friends and other 
borrowers and kept the interest for themselves. Sometimes treasur- 
ers' bonds were not good and a shortage meant a loss. It proved to 
be so in this case. 






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244 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

and convicted and received a sentence of twenty years ^ in 
the state penitentiary. Bartley claimed that the money was 
taken by others. It was asserted before the RepubHcan 
state convention that Bartley had paid back part of the 
money and would pay back more if left alone. 

State Flower and Name. — On April 4, 1895, the legis- 
lature adopted the Goldenrod as the state flower of Ne- 
braska. On the same date Nebraska was given the name. 
Tree Planter's State. 

The Campaign of 1896. — The state campaign of 1896 
was one of the most exciting ever held in the state, owing 
in part to the hard times occasioned by the drouth, and in 
part to the nomination of William Jennings Bryan for, the 
presidency of the United States. Bryan stood upon a 
radical "free silver" platform. Though the Republicans 
simply expressed themselves in favor of a "sound dollar," 
yet they were regarded as champions of the gold standard. 
Governor Holcomb was re-elected. Bryan carried Nebraska 
but lost the national election. 

The Legislature of 1897. — Fusion won the day ini896, 
and when the legislature convened on January 5, 1897, the 
Republican party was in the minority. Silas A. Holcomb was 
governor, and both branches of the legislature were now 
under the control of the new party. 

This session of the legislature tried to enact an anti-pass 
law, but failed.- Several bills were introducted but all were 
indefinitely postponed. It is said that members of the legis- 
lature and, in fact, state officers, traveled at will in Ne- 

1 Bartle}'^ served about five 3'ears, his sentence being commuted by 
Governor Savage. 

-The railroads offered free annual passes to state 'officers and 
legislatures. This plan placed those who received them under obH- 
gations to the railroads. In addition to this method the railroads 
kept lobbyists at the legislative sessions to influence legislation de- 
sirable to them. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 245 

braska on annual passes. The pass was quite a luxury to 
some members of the new legislature, and no doubt the 
system was enjoyed by them to such an extent that a neces- 
sary majority could not be secured for any of the several 
regulating measures, among which was one limiting pass- 
enger fares to two cents per mile. The most notable measure 
adopted was one regulating the stock yards and fixing the 
charges thereof. This bill was later declared unconstitu- 
tional on account of a defective title. The right of the 
initiative and referendum ^ was given to municipalities. 

Creameries and Cream Separators. — Nebraska, being a 
livestock state, has from the early days produced an increas- 
ing amount of dairy products. Formerly milk was left to 
stand in a cool place until the cream "raised." Then the 
cream was skimmed and churned into butter by the house- 
wife, and the surplus above the family needs was sold at 
the store. This plan was changed in the 'nineties by the 
establishment of creameries in Nebraska. On March 21, 
1898, the Beatrice Creamery Company opened in Lincoln. 
Dairymen and farmers began selling their cream to the 
creameries, where it was churned into butter in large quan- 
tities for market purposes. A little later the cream separator, 
which separates the cream out of the new warm milk, came 
into use. This plan leaves the warm milk to be used on the 
farm, while the fresh cream is shipped to the creameries or 
butter factories. Thus from a small beginning has grown a 
great dairy industry. 

Sale of the Union Pacific. — During this administration 
the Union Pacific Railroad was sold by court order to satisfy 
the debts against it. This change did not affect the opera- 
tion of the road in Nebraska. 

1 The right to submit to popular vote an act passed by a legis- 
lature. 



246 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

Nebraska in the Spanish- American War. — Nebraska 
furnished three full regiments and a troop of cavalry for 
the war with Spain. The First Nebraska Regiment In- 
fantry was mustered in at Lincoln May 9, 1898. It was 
ordered to San Francisco and from there to the Philippine 
Islands, where it arrived and went into Camp Dewey July 
17, 1898. The First Nebraska participated in the attack on 
Manilla August 13. The regiment also took part in several 
other important engagements and won distinction. It was 
mustered out at San Francisco August 23, 1899. The total 
enrollment was 1,376; lost in battle, 21 ; died of wounds, 13 ; 
4ied of disease, 30 ; total loss, 64. The officers were Colonel 
John P. Bratt ; Lieutenant-Colonel George R. Coulton, who 
was mustered out June 16, 1899, and was succeeded by 
Frank D. Eager ; and Major John M. Stotsenburg. Others 
ranking as major were Harry B. Mulford, Fred A. Williams, 
Wallace C. Taylor, and Julius N. Kilian. 

The Second Infantry Regiment of Nebraska Guard, the 
state militia, entered the service of the United States April 
27, 1898, and was ordered to Chickamauga Park, Georgia. 
It was mustered out at Omaha October 24, 1898. The 
officers were Colonel C. J. Bills ; Lieutenant-Colonel Emil 
Olson; Majors William S. Mapes and Ernest H. Tracy. 
This regiment had enrolled during its period of service 46 
officers and 1,366 enlisted men. It lost 26 by death from 
disease and 8 by accident. 

The Third Regiment Nebraska Infantry was organized 
at Omaha. On July 13, 1898, it moved by rail to Jackson- 
ville, Florida, and thence to Havana, Cuba. The regiment was 
returned to Augusta, Georgia, April 19, 1899, to be must- 
ered out. It had 61 officers and 1,358 enlisted men, and lost 
by death from disease 32. Its officers were Colonel William 
Jennings Bryan ; Lieutenant-Colonels Victor Vifquian and 



John H. McClay; and Majors Conrad F. Scharmann and 
Harry S. Dugan. 

Troop A Cavalry, Nebraska National Guard, located at 
Milford, was mustered into the United States volunteer 
service May 14, 1898, as Troop K, Third United States 




Fire Chief of the Omaha Tribe 



Volunteers. Troop K was sent to Chickamauga, from which 
place it was mustered out September 8, 1898. The officers 
were Captain Jacob H. Culver; First Lieutenant William 
S. Kinney; and Second Lieutenant Elvin S. Culver. 

The Trans-Mississippi and International Exposition. — 
The Trans-Mississippi and International Exposition was 
held at Omaha from June 8 to October 31, 1898. It was a 



248 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

splendid exhibit of the products and resources of that sec- 
tion of the country west of the Mississippi River, and espe- 
cially of that part west of the Missouri. The exposition 
was projected at the annual meeting of the Trans-Missis- 
sippi Congress held in Omaha November, 1895, William 
J. Bryan presented a resolution declaring an intention to 
hold the exposition and requesting Congress to give the 
usual assistance in such cases. On the 6th of June, 1896, 
Congress appropriated $200,000 for the purpose of erect- 
ing buildings and making an exhibit on the part of the fed- 
eral government. Many states made liberal appropriations 
for state buildings in which to hold their respective exhibits. 
The Nebraska legislature appropriated $100,000, and 
Douglas County appropriated an equal sum. The governor 
of Nebraska appointed a board of six directors, one from 
each congressional district. The total cost of the buildings 
was $565,034, not including state buildings. The earnings 
of the Exposition were in excess of the expenditures. The 
executive committee consisted of Z. T. Lindsey, Edward 
Rosewater, Gilbert M. Hitchcock, E. E. Bruce, A. L. Reed, 
F. P. Kirkendall, and W. N. Babcock. G. W. Wattles was 
president of the board of directors. The Exposition with its 
beautiful buildings and grounds was widely praised 
throughout the United States.^ 

The Election of 1898. — In 1898 William A. Poynter, 
Fusionist, was elected governor over Monroe L. Hayward, 
Republican, by a vote of 95,703 to 92,982. The other Fusion 
candidates were elected by majorities about the same as that 
of governor. At the session of 1899, Monroe L. Hayward, 
the defeated candidate for governor, was elected to the 
United States Senate. 

^ In 1910 a history of the Exposition was published bj' the author- 
ity of its board of directors. It can be seen in the Omaha Public 
Library and probably other city libraries. 



CHAPTER XVII 

ADMINISTRATION OF GOVERNOR WILLIAM A. 
POYNTER, 1899-1901 

The Legislature of 1899. — This legislature amended 
the compulsory^ primary act ; passed a corrupt practices act ; 
created a food commission by making the governor com- 
missioner with the power to appoint a deputy commissioner ; 
established a soldiers' and sailors' home at Milford, and 
made small appropriations for the soldiers wounded in the 
Phillipines and Cuba. An act to abolish free railroad passes 
was indefinitely postponed. On January 9, 1899, a bill guar- 
anteeing bank deposits was introduced into the legislature. 
While it was unsuccessful at the time, it marked an agita- 
tion that later developed into a Nebraska guarantee law. A 
bill was passed in this same year locating the State Fair at 
Lincoln. 

The Election of 1900. — At the presidential election of 
1900, McKinley carried the state against Bryan by about 
8,000. Governor Poynter was defeated for re-election by 
Charles H. Dietrich, Republican, by a vote of 113,018 to 
113,879. The Republicans controUeJd the legislature. 

ADMINISTRATION OF GOVERNOR CHARLES H. 
DIETRICH, 1901-1903 

Legislature of 1901. — The principal business of the 
session was the election of J. H. Millard of Omaha and 
Charles H. Dietrich, the governor, to the United States 
Senate. The contest continued from January 15 to March 

249 



250 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

28, the election occuring on the fifty- fourth ballot. David 
E. Thompson and Edward Rosewater were also candidates, 
but they finally withdrew, leaving the full Republican vote to 
Millard and Dietrich. 

Governor Savage. — Governor Dietrich resigned about 
four months after his election in order to take up his duties 
as United States Senator. Lieutenant-Governor Savage 
then became governor and served more than a year and a 
half. During this time he commuted the sentence of former 
State Treasurer Bartley. This made him enemies, as the 
Hartley defalcation had created factions. He justified this 
act on the ground that Bartley could pay the state more 
money if out of the penitentiary. 

In 1901 the United States furthered the arbor movement 
in Nebraska by locating two reserves in western Nebraska 
for experimentation with various kinds of trees. The 
object was to determine what trees will grow best in sandy 
soil and with light rain fall. Trees do well almost anywhere 
in Nebraska with plenty of water. 

During this administration the Farmers' Union began to 
organize in Nebraska. It is a society for the protection of 
farmers' interests and is somewhat similar to the Grange 
and Alliance. It markets farm products for its members, 
particularly grain, and owns through its members many 
elevators throughout the state. 

ADMINISTRATION OF GOVERNOR JOHN H. 
MICKEY, 1903-1907 

Election of 1902, — In the fall of 1902 J. H. Mickey, 
Republican, had been elected over W. H. Thompson, of 
Grand Island. In the fall of 1904, Mickey was again 
elected over George W. Berge, Fusionist, by a vote of 



252 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

111,711 to 102,568, thus securing two terms of the gover- 
norship. 

A Political Awakening. — During the entire history of 
the territory and state, Nebraska had suffered more or less 
from the poHtical game as played by the parties who were 
in turn under the control of the "interests." ^ Nebraska, 
like mau}^ other states of the Union, was ruled by this "in- 
visible government." The people, however, were awaken- 
ing to the true situation and they began to press for reforms 
in political life. 

The Republican Convention of 1904. — This convention 
took the first step towards the election of United States 
senators by direct vote of the people. This was probably 
due to the fact that the legislature of 1901 had been in a 
deadlock nearly the whole of the session over the election 
of United States senators. Other legislation had been 
greatly hindered, in consequence. 

Kinkaid Homesteads. — In 1904 there were about 
8,000,000 acres of Nebraska's roughest and most sandy 
land still belonging to the government. This land was in 
general only good for pasture, being too sandy to raise crops 
or wild hay. Homesteaders did not care for it in 160 acre 
tracts. In 1904, Moses Kinkaid, United States Congress- 
man from the Sixth Nebraska District, succeeded in get- 
ting a bill through Congress that permitted all this land to 
be taken in 640 acre homesteads, the homesteader being 
obliged to live on the land five years and to place thereon 
improvements to the value of $1.25 per acre, or $800.00 
on a 640 acre tract, before obtaining title from the govern- 
ment. This land has now nearly all been taken. 

1 "Interests" were corporations or individuals desiring legislation 
that would further their private ends. They were ever present in 
the legislative lobby seeking with bribes and patronage to influence 
legislation. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 253 

An Elective Railway Commission. — Political conven- 
tions and legislative assemblies had. on various occasions, 
taken up the subject of railway regulation, but the dis- 
cussions were always half-hearted and sometimes were 
only an attempt to throw dust in the eyes of the people by 
friends of the corporations. The final struggle came in the 
session of the legislature of 1905, when Addison E. Cady 
of Howard County, a member of the state senate, cham- 
pioned a bill for an elective railway commission ^ as a con- 
stitutional amendment. It was passed by the legislature 
and was carried at the general election of 1906 by an almost 
unanimous vote. 

Prices of Land, Irrigation, Dry Farming. — During 
Governor Mickey's administration the farmers had good 
crops and received high prices for their products. Land 
notably increased in value. Everybody wanted land. This 
condition was very beneficial to Nebraska, an agricultural 
state. In the dryer parts of Nebraska irrigation of low 
lands was extended, and dry farming was given much at- 
tention on the high lands. Dry farming derives its name 
from the method of farming the soil to conserve the mois- 
ture where the rainfall is deficient. 

Irrigation became quite extensive along the Platte and 
Republican rivers, as w^ell as along other streams in the 
central and western part of the state. In 1906 the United 
State government built the huge Pathfinder dam on the 
Platte River across a deep and rocky canyon in Wyoming. 
This dam holds back the water from the melting snow in 
the spring. The water is retained until the dry season, 
when it is sent down the river to irrigate part of western 

1 A board of three commissioners elected by the people to regu- 
late railroad service and charges and, in general, to protect the in- 
terests of the public in its relation to the railroads. 



254 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

Nebraska. This system has made Scotts Bluff county both 
attractive and wealthy. 

A Ten-Years' Struggle. — The year 1906 marked the 
beginning of an effort on the part of the people to wrest 
the state from the control of the "invisible government." 
The Democratic convention of 1906 nominated for Governor 
Ashton C. Shallenberger. The platform upon which Mr. 
Shallenberger stood declared for a full list of reform meas- 
ures, including an anti-pass law. 

The Republicans nominated George L. Sheldon of Cass 
County for governor. He had made a good record as a re- 
former when a member of the state senate during the pre- 
vious session of the legislature. The Republican platform 
demanded a direct primary law ^ for all county and state 
officers, as well as for United States senators and repre- 
sentatives ; the passage of a two-cent a mile railroad fare 
law by the next legislature ; an elective railway commission ; 
a compensation act for employees of corporations ; and the 
taxation of railway property in cities and villages. 

In the election the Republican party was successful 
throughout the state. However, Gilbert M. Hitchcock, a 
Democrat, received the election as congressman from the 
second district. 

Norris Brown Elected United States Senator. — A 
feature of the Republican convention of 1906 was the de- 
feat of Edward Rosewater by Norris Brown in the contest 
for the United States senatorship. Brown, as attorney- 
general of the state, had led a successful fight against the 
trusts and stood with Governor Sheldon in advocating re- 
forms. On this account he was well established in the good 
opinion of the people. Brown was nominated on the sixth 

1 A law under which candidates for office are nominated b}' a vote 
of their party instead of by a delegate convention. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 255 

ballot. Rosewater's editorial pen had been used in many 
a political battle, and the enemies he had made by oppos- 
ing improper influences and exposing various abuses of 
power were sufficient to accomplish his defeat.^ Brown 
was elected by the legislature of 1907 and distinguished 
himself in the United States Senate as the author of the 
amendment to the federal constitution providing for an 
income tax law. 

ADMINISTRATION OF GOVERNOR GEORGE L. 
SHELDON, 1907-1909 

The Legislature in a New Role. — The legislature at 
the session of 1907 shook off completely the control of the 
"interests." It was backed by the reform governor, George 
L. Sheldon, who posted the platform upon the wall of his 
office and checked off each pledge as it was fulfilled by 
its enactment into law. The following progressive mea- 
sures were passed: a railroad employers' liability law; a 
general primary election law; an act revising the pure 
food law; an anti-lobbying law; a sweeping anti-pass law;. 

1 Edward Rosewater, editor of the Omaha Daily Bee, was born 
in Bohemia, January 28, 1841. He emigrated to America with his 
parents. He became a telegrapher, joined the telegraph corps of the 
Union army at Wheeling, West Virginia, and accompanied John C. 
Fremont in his West Virginia campaign in 1862, He was later at- 
tached to General Pope's staff for service in the field. For a time 
Rosewater was assigned to the war department telegraph office, but 
later became manager of the Pacific Telegraph Company. He filled 
this position until 1870, when he founded the Omaha Daily Tribune. 
He was elected to the Nebraska legislature in 1870, and from that 
time interested himself in various political reforms. In 1871 he 
established the Omaha Daily Bee. Rosewater might have made his 
way to the highest political position had be been willing to compro- 
mise his editorial career with interests which he considered con- 
trary to the public welfare. ^ In the columns of his newspaper he 
always took the side of justice as he saw it, and he never lost an 
opportunity to speak for the rights of the people. He died in 1905. 
His son, Victor Rosewater, succeeded him in the ownership and 
management of the Bee. 



256 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

a two-cent fare law ; a law for the issuance of mileage 
books ; a terminal railway taxation law ; a maximum freight 
rate law; and a law regulating express companies. The 
pledges of the Republican convention were thus carried out. 
The Campaign of 1908. — In the campaign of 1908 
Ashton C. Shallenberger defeated George L. Sheldon for 
governor, and the Democrats generally carried the state. 
Several causes entered into the defeat of the Republicans. 
The reform legislation of the 1907 session was resented 
by many of the former political leaders. The passage of a 
law prohibiting brewers from having financial interest in 
saloons caused the liquor interests to line up strongly 
with the Democratic party. 

ADMINISTRATION OF GOVERNOR ASHTON C. 
SHALLENBERGER 1909-1911 

Legislation of 1909. — Several excellent measures were 
passed in the session of 1909. Among them were the 
eight o'clock closing law, a law compelling corporations to 
pay an annual tax, a law providing for the physical valu- 
ation of railroads, loss by bank failure, and a law providing 
for the election of the candidate preferred by the people 
for United States Senator. 

Eight o'clock Closing Law. — Probably the most im- 
portant act of the legislature of 1909 was the eight o'clock 
closing law for saloons. This was the first important amend- 
ment to the Slocumb license law, which had been in force 
since 1881. It was a severe blow to the liquor interests 
of the state. Governor Shallenberger was hard pressed 
by the ''interests" to veto the measure, but refused to do 
so. He thus laid the foundation for his defeat in the fol- 
lowing campaign. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 



257 



Politics of 1910 — County Option. — In the campaign 
of 1910 all normal political calculations were upset by the 
injection of prohibition. Governor Shallenberger's adminis- 
tration had been so satisfactory that his re-election seemed 
assured, but he had offended the liquor interest by signing 
the eight o'clock closing law. James C. Dahlman, Demo- 




Santee Agency Government Indian Schooe Buieding 



cratic mayor of . Omaha, entered the primary campaign 
opposed to Shallenberger and won the nomination by a 
narrow margin. Chester H. Aldrich, a strong county op- 
tion ^ advocate and a member of the reform legislature of 
1907, won the Republican nomination. 

The Democrats stood for the Slocumb law, while the 
Republicans adopted a strong county option plank. Aldrich 

^ The county option plan provided that each county should decide 
the saloon question for itself by a vote of its citizens. 



258 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

was elected by a large majority over Dahlman, and with him 
was elected the entire Republican state ticket. Hitchcock, 
Democrat, defeated Burkett for the United States senator- 
ship. The Democrats gained both houses of the legislature, 
and consequently county option failed. 

ADMINISTRATION OF GOVERNOR CHESTER H. 
ALDRICH, 1911-1913 

Laws of the Session of igii. — The legislature of 1911 
was nearly equally divided in membership between Repub- 
licans and Democrats. Among the more important mea- 
sures which became laws were those levying a tax for uni- 
versity extension, establishing the initiative and referen- 
dum, providing for the commission form of city govern- 
ment, forbidding the selling of seed with weed seed in it, 
and protecting the rivers and lakes of the state. 

Amendments to the Constitution. — At the election in 
the fall of 1912, five amendments to the constitution were 
voted on and carried. They were the initiative and refer- 
endum, elections every two years instead of every year, 
home rule by cities of the state, a board of control for the 
asylums and penitentiaries, and an increase of the salaries 
of legislators from $300 to $600. 

ADMINISTRATION OF GOVERNOR JOHN H. 
MOREHEAD, 1913-1917 

The political condition in Nebraska during the summer 
of 1912 was very greatly disturbed and materially influenced 
by the peculiar situation of the parties and the character of 
the issues as they were related to national policies and 
politics. The sentiment among Republicans for and 
against the nomination of President William Howard Taft 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 259 

for a second term and his final selection at the convention 
in July; the withdrawal of Theodore Roosevelt and some 
of those who desired his nomination from the Chicago con- 
vention and later his nomination at another convention ; the 
nomination of Woodrow Wilson by the democratic conven- 
tion after it seemed almost certain that Champ Clark had 
a majority of the delegates ; the unrest everywhere es- 
pecially among the members of certain trades, unions, and 
classes; the general state of the country in its economic, 
industrial, and financial outlook — to say nothing of many 
other elements of distrust and uncertainty — all combined 
to multiply the issues and to make uncertain the political 
trend in Nebraska. 

Out of it all John H. Morehead of Falls City and Chester 
A. Aldrich of David City were nominated by the two old 
parties. At the election Morehead received 123,997 votes 
and Aldrich 114,075. This elected Morehead governor by 
a majority of 9,922. At the same election George W. Norris 
of McCook was elected United States senator by a major- 
ity over Ashton C. Shallenberger of Alma, of 8,605 votes. 

Campaign of 1914. — In the Republican primaries ^ of 
1914, R. B. Howell of Omaha was nominated for gover- 
nor, while the Democratic party renominated John H. 
Morehead. The Democrats were largely successful. 
Morehead was elected governor. 

Campaign of 1916. — The state election of 1916 was in- 
fluenced in part by national issues and in part by the pro- 
posed amendment to the constitution prohibiting the manu- 
facture and sale of intoxicating liquors within the state. 
The Democratic party, under the leadership of President 
Wilson, had passed a number of progressive measures. 

1 Under the primary election law candidates are now nominated 
by a vote of the people instead by a convention of delegates. 



260 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

The President, moreover, had avoided alhances with other 
countries, and the cry "Wilson kept us out of war" was 
very effective in the campaign. 

While all of these conditions served to aid the Democratic 
party, yet it was torn asunder by the temperance issue. 
Bryan had resigned as secretary of state under President 
Wilson, and he immediately took up the campaign in Ne- 
braska for a "dry" state. His brother, Charles Bryan, be- 
came candidate for governor, with prohibition as a plank 
in his platform. The Democratic party seemed hopelessly 
split. 

The Republicans nominated A. L. Sutton for governor, 
who made temperance the main issue. The two great issues, 
Wilson and prohibition, proved to be beneficial to the Demo- 
cratic party. Many Republicans who opposed prohibition 
voted the Democratic ticket, because Senator Hitchcock and 
Keith Neville, the Democratic candidate for governor, were 
against the prohibition amendment. Wilson carried the state 
by 41,000 and took with him the entire Democratic state 
ticket. Hitchcock was re-elected to the United States Sen- 
ate. The legislature had a Democratic majority in each 
house. On the other hand, many Democrats who favored 
prohibition voted for the amendment. It was adopted by 
about 30,000 majority. 

Legislature of 1917. — The legislature of 1917 con- 
tained many farm members. Some excellent laws were 
enacted, notably a limited suffrage bill ; provision for the 
use of convict labor; a state hail insurance bill; a bill pro- 
viding for redistricting of counties for school purposes and 
the distribution of the burden of school tax ; a bill placing 
the offices of county superintendent and state superin- 
tendent on a non-partisan basis ; a measure to meet the 
government's requirements for federal aid in road build- 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 261 

ing; and a measure establishing vocational training in 
schools. Considerable attention was given to a bill pro- 
posing a levy fo build a new state capitol. The measure 
passed the house but failed in the senate. 

Making a "Bone-dry" Law. — The chief interest of the 
legislature of 1917 was in a bill to enforce the provisions 
of the prohibition amendment to the state constitution. The 
house passed a bill which seemed to meet with the general 
approval of the people. When the bill reached the senate 
dilatory tactics were used, but the time came when the 
measure had to receive consideration. Senator Robertson of 
Holt County introduced one hundred amendments, practic- 
ally all in the interests of the liquor dealers. Many of these 
amendments carried, and the bill went into conference 
committee. After many days of delay and deadlock Sena- 
tor Robertson, who had introduced the one hundred amend- 
ments and who was on the committee, joined those who 
stood for an effective measure, and the committee report 
was concurred in by both houses. On the signature of the 
governor the bill became a law, and thus ended the long 
prohibition fight in Nebraska. 

THE ADMINISTRATION OF KEITH NEVILLE, 

1917-1919 

During the summer of 1916 the political condition in 
Nebraska was again influenced by national affairs. This 
time the agitation and dift'erences were more particularly 
produced by questions which were constantly arising be- 
cause of our relation to the war in Europe. But great as 
these issues were, the questions of the greatest moment in 
the minds of many of the voters in Nebraska were those 
which related to the state, to the state government, and the 



262 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

relation the legislative body sustained to the desire, will, 
and welfare of the people. All of these questions were 
of great interest, but the one which received the most at- 
tention from people of all classes was the proposed amend- 
ment to the constitution of the state which would abolish 
the saloon and prohibit the liquor traffic. While national 
issues had their influence in shaping state events and in- 
ternal questions of different kind had attention, the deter- 
mining question was the constitutional amendment and the 
manner in which it would be treated if it should be enacted 
into law. The question of the amendment, while it had to do 
with parties and issues, was in fact a question of the people. 

Citizens of all parties and those of no party were in favor 
of and were against the proposed amendment. Keith Neville 
of North Platte and A. L. Sutton of Omaha were nominated. 
Neville received 143,564 votes and Sutton 136,811. This 
vote elected Neville governor by a majority of 6,753 votes. 

The national issues were great forces at the time of the 
election — much greater than they were at the time the 
nominations were made. The cry, "Wilson has kept us 
out of war," was the strongest single force on election day, 
so far as Nebraska was concerned at that particular time. 

The prohibition amendment carried by a vote of (146,574 
for and 117,532 against) 29,042 and thus became a part of 
the organic law of the state. 

THE ADMINISTRATION OF S. R. McKELVIE, 1919 

While the election of 1918 had many issues of interest to 
the people and to the commonwealth as a whole, it was 
not complicated to any great extent by national questions. 
The thing that absorbed the interest of all, as a nation, was 
the winning of the war. The men and women, and even 
the children so far as they understood it, of all parties and 



264 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

classes were as one, and many other things of importance 
were left out of consideration. When the place and work 
of the state in the great war shall be written, it will be 
known that Nebraska's heart and efforts were right and 
wrought for righteousness. 

S. R. McKelvie of Lincoln was elected governor by a 
plurality of 23,002 and took his place as chief executive in 
January, 1919. 

George W. Norris was reelected United States senator 
by a majority of 20,396. 

The bill authorizing a constitutional convention to sit in 
December, 1919, was ratified by a majority of 77,?>Z9. 

Woman suffrage received 225,717 votes and had 123,292 
against it. Thus it became a law in Nebraska by a major- 
ity of 72,132 votes. 

PROGRESS IN NEBRASKA 

The last ten or twelve years have seen unusual progress in 
Nebraska. This is the case whether we are thinking of its 
physical welfare, its industrial progress, its educational 
development, its legislative aspects, or its economic stability. 

The assurance that good crops of potatoes, of wheat, of 
rye, of sugar beets, and of many kinds of fruit can be 
raised, as well as corn, hay, and alfalfa, is a matter of un- 
told interest to all both for the present and the future. 

Beginning with 1907 came the free high school tuition law. 
This was followed by providing aid for weak districts, nor- 
mal training in the high schools, agricultural education, in- 
dustrial training, domestic science, county high schools, and 
consolidation of schools. All this led up to the law passed 
by the legislature of 1919 to redistrict, by counties, the 
schools of the state. These steps have been taken that 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 265 

Nebraska may offer more and better educational advantages 
to all the children of all the people. These efforts in be- 
half of elementary education have been more than equaled 
by the growth of the normal schools, the development of 
the colleges, and the enlargement of the state university. 

Th» bank guarantee law, the workmen's compensation 
act, and the establishment of the State Board of Control for 
the management of fifteen of the institutions of the state 
are most important measures in the interest of all the people 
of Nebraska. 

All these things say to us : Study the past that we may 
know how the present came to be ; study the present that we 
may appreciate the past ; and study the present in the light of 
the past and the past in the light of the present that we 
may be prepared for the future. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

THE SEMI-CENTENNIAL CELEBRATIOI^I 

Committee Appointed. — The semi-centennial celebra- 
tion of the admission of the state into the Union occurred 
in 1917, under the direction of the State Historical Society.^ 
The president of the Society, John Lee Webster of Omaha, 
appointed a committee of one hundred members, well dis- 
tributed over the state, to have charge of the ceremonies. 

Plans of Celebration. — The plans for the celebration 
included a grand pageant at Omaha in connection with the 
Aksarben in October, 1916. The parade was composed of 
beautiful floats, each float representing an event in Nebraska 
history. A large number of Indians in gaudy attire marched 
in the parade as a reminder of the very early days, and the 
old method of travel was represented by oxen pulling a 
typical ''prairie schooner." More than one hundred thou- 
sand people witnessed the ceremonies. President and Mrs. 
Woodrow Wilson were present and reviewed the pageant. 
President Wilson delivered an address. 

The Lincoln Celebration. — The Lincoln celebration 
occurred at the time of the annual commencement of the 
University of Nebraska in June, 1917. The former Presi- 
dent of the United States, Theodore Roosevelt, delivered 
an address. 

Statewide Celebrations. — Celebrations were held in 

1 The State Historical Society has headquarters in Lincoln. Its 
members are citizens of Nebraska who are interested in Nebraska 
history and in the preservation of historical records. It has a col- 
lection of historic interest in one of the University buildings. The 
collection is open to visitors and is well worth seeing. 

266 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 267 

nearly all the counties of the state, in connection with the 
public schools, and also at the county seats. A local com- 
mittee consisting of the county superintendent, the mayor of 
the city, the president of the commercial club, and the presi- 
dent of the local women's club was appointed in each 
county seat to have general charge of all local celebrations. 
The following is an outline of the program: 




John L. Webster 

I. Pre-celebration arrangements. The special study of 
Nebraska history; the collection of historic data and the 
marking of places of historic interest; map making: show- 
ing historical local trails and places of interest in pioneer 
days. 

II. Celebrations on February 12th in 6,500 rural and 
village schools of the state. Patriotic songs and the Ne- 
braska patriotic ode; a brief history of the purchase of the 
Louisana territory; territorial Nebraska, and the state 
today; essays on various phases of local history; stories of 
the pioneers; brief addresses by local speakers. 



268 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

HI. Observances in churches and Sunday schools Feb- 
ruary 25. 

IV. General or county celebrations on March 1, in 
schools, commercial clubs, historical societies, churches, 
women's clubs. Daughters of the American Revolution, 
men's clubs, and civic societies. Such celebrations included 
the following programs : 

1. Moving pictures showing local schools, local history, 
and scenes of state development. 

2. Dramatization of local and state history. 

3. Addresses on the pioneer days. 

4. Nebraska, present and future, by local speakers. 

5. Historical carnival or pageant covering local and 
state themes. 

6. County exhibitions and contests from all schools, 
spelling contests, ciphering matches, essay and oratorical 
contests, compositions on local history, collections of histor- 
ical relics, and general school work. 

7. Unveiling of pictures and statues of important 
characters who had to do with the upbuilding of the com- 
munity. 

V. March 1, 1917, Nebraska Day in the legislature. A 
formal recognition of the admission of the state into the 
Union. 

STATE SONG 
The Haskell Ode Contest. — The Honorable John D. 
Haskell of Wakefield, Nebraska, offered in 1916 a prize of 
$100 for the best poem suitable for a Nebraska state song, 
the same to be written by a resident of the state. The prize 
was awarded to Reverend W. H. Buss of Fremont. Has- 
kell also gave a prize of $100 for the best musical arrange- 
ment for the ode. This prize was awarded to John Prindle 
Scott of New York City. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 269 

HYMN TO NEBRASKA 

BY REV. WILLIAM H. BUSS, ER^MONT 

Now laud the proud tree planter state, 
Nebraska, — free, enlightened, great ; 
Her royal place she has in song: 
The noblest strains to her belong : 

Her fame is sure. 
Then sing Nebraska through the years ; 
Extol her stalwart pioneers ; 
The days when, staunch and unafraid. 
The state's foundations, well they laid, 
To long endure. 

The land where Coronado trod, 
And brave Marquette surveyed the sod ; 
Where red men long in council sat; 
Where spreads the valley of the Platte 

Far 'neath the sun. 
The land, beside whose borders sweep 
The big Missouri's waters, deep. 
Whose course erratic, through its sands, 
From northland on, through many lands. 

Does seaward run. 

The foothills of the Rockies lie 
Afar athwart her western sky : 
Her rolling prairie, like the sea. 
Held long in virgin sanctity 
Her fertile loam. 
Her wild-life roamed o'er treeless plains 
Till came the toiling wagon-trains, 



270 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

And settlers bold, far westward bound, 
In broad Nebraska's valley found 
Their chosen home. 

Now o'er her realm and 'neath her sky, 
Her golden harvests richly lie; 
Her corn more vast than Egypt yields ; 
Her grain unmatched in other fields : 

Her cattle rare. 
Alfalfa fields, by winding streams ; 
And sunsets, thrilling poets' dreams. 
These all we sing, and know the time 
Has ne'er revealed a fairer clime. 
Or sweeter air. 

O proud Nebraska, brave and free; 
Thus sings thy populace to thee. 
Thy virile strength, thy love of light ; 
Thy civic glory, joined with right. 

Our hearts elate. 
Thy manly wisdom, firm to rule ; 
Thy womanhood in church and school ; 
Thy learning, culture, art, and peace 
Do make thee strong, and ne'er shall cease 

To keep thee great. 

(to be included on occasion) 
Her heaving bluffs uplift their heads 
Along her winding river beds. 
And, pleasing far the traveler's view, — 
Well guard her Elkhorn and her Blue, 

Encrowned with wood. 
And there, by landmarks, ne'er to fail. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 271 

Upon the ancient westward trail ; 
Or graven stone, securely placed, 
By eye observant may be traced 
Where wigwam stood. 

Her honored cities grow in wealth ; 
In thriving commerce, public health ; 
Her first, the gateway of the west ; 
Her Omaha, that will not rest. 

Nor take defeat. 
Her capital of worthy fame, 
That bears the mighty Lincoln's name, 
And thousands of Nebraska youth 
E'er summons to her fount of truth. 

At learning's seat. 



THE WORLD WAR 

BY J. A. BKATTIE 

Every true American takes a just pride in that which the 
United States helped France, Great Britain, and the other 
allied nations to accomplish during the last years of the 
World War. . Likewise every loyal, patriotic citizen of Ne- 
braska appreciates to the fullest extent the courage and valor 
of the soldiers and sailors who went from this state to the 
camps, trenches, and storm centers of Europe when national 
freedom was in danger. This same appreciation is extended 
to the Red Cross and to the other divisions of work — work 
of the most necessary and helpful kind. 

But at this date we are too near the beginning and the 
ending of the great struggle to know all the facts and to ap- 
preciate the zeal and work of those who went from Ne- 
braska. When time shall reveal all the facts and shall 
establish the rightful place of each division, in so far as that 
can be done, some historian will tell the story of the work 
and sacrifices of those who went from Nebraska. This story 
will include the struggles, the privations, the sacrifices, and 
the songs of victory of those who went, who saw, who 
fought, who conquered, and who returned to the homes and 
communities from which they enlisted. Likewise the story 
will contain a faithful account of the soldierly conduct and 
deeds of valor of those who sleep where the "poppies grow" 
and whose graves are in the care of the allied nations beyond 
the seas. 

While we are waiting for time, study, and research to 

272 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 273 

make all things clear and for some one to ptit them down 
by the side of those from the other states in the Union, 
we may with great profit study some of the causes of the 
war and learn some important lessons — lessons which are 
taught by the relations we sustain to them. The lessons 
we may learn ought to inspire us to be still more loyal in 
the future than we have been in the past to every principle 
of right and duty, and still more loyally devoted to every- 
thing truly democratic in life, in purpose, and in action. 

Among these things it is worth while for us to learn, is 
the extent to which the world was involved in the war and 
the extent to which we are to share in its consequences. 
Perhaps the best and easiest way to get the right conception 
of the variety and vastness of the interests which the war 
involved is to make a group of the nations and peoples who 
were engaged in the conflict. By this method we shall be 
able to measure more accurately and appreciate more fully 
the meaning of this life and death struggle. Not only so, 
but also we shall come to know how far the forces of evil 
intended to carry the false teaching and practice ''that 
might makes right." 

In all — counting both sides — twenty-eight nations were 
engaged in the war, four on what is called the side of the 
Germans, and twenty-four on the side of the allied nations. 
It will be of value to us to know the strength of these na- 
tions on both sides. To this end the population is given on 
the page below. The figures are taken from the most trust- 
worthy government sources available. The population is 
stated in each case in round numbers. This method shows 
the man-power of each nation; and by placing them together 
the comparative strength is readily seen. 

On one side were Germany with a populataion of 68,000- 
000; Austria-Hungary, 50,000,000; Turkey, 22,000,000; and 



274 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

Bulgaria, 5,0(50,000. This gives a total population for the 
four nations of 145,000,000. 

On the other side, placing them in alphabetical order, the 
allied nations were as follows : Belgium, 8,000,000 ; Brazil, 
23,000,000; China, 420,000,000; Costa Rica, 425,000; Cuba, 
2,500,000; France, including her possessions, 90,000,000; 
Guatemala, 2,000,000; Great Britain, including Canada and 
her other possessions, 440,000,000; Greece, 5,000,000; Haiti, 
2,000 000; Honduras, 600,000; Italy, 37,000,000; Japan, 54,- 
000,000; Liberia, 2,000,000; Montenegro, 5,000,000; Nica- 
ragua, 700,000; Panama, 400,000; Portugal, including 
her possessions, 15,000,000; Rumania, 7,500,000; Russia, 
180,000.000; San Marino, 10,000; Serbia, 4,500,000; Siam, 
6,000,000; and the United States, 112,000,000. Putting these 
numbers together we find that the allied nations possessed 
a strength represented by 1,417,635,000 people. This shows 
that the population of the twenty-eight nations engaged in 
this war was 1,562,635,000. 

The important nations which were not engaged in the 
conflict — such as Holland, Switzerland, Spain, Persia, 
Denmark, Mexico, Norway, and Sweden — had a popula- 
tion according to the same sources of information of about 
135,876,000. By comparing the population of the neutral 
nations with the populations of those engaged in the war, we 
find that for every one person not engaged there were 
twelve or thirteen who were citizens of the nations in the 
struggle. Even the peoples whose governments had not de- 
clared war and were, therefore, not officially on the one side 
nor on the other, were within the circle of war prices, war 
hatred, war spirit, war dread, and war tendency. Although 
Holland and Switzerland and the other neutral nations did 
everything within their power to keep sacredly their treaty 
obligations and limits and to maintain peaceful relations, 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 275 

they suffered in many respects. Their food, clothing^ build- 
ing material, and almost every other thing which, in any way 
related to life and industry, to commerce and manufactur- 
ing, have been subject to the prices, demands, and unrest of 
the war. While all peoples were not under arms and were 
not represented on the battle-field, all nations and peoples 
suffered and that in ways and to an extent that history may 
never be able to record. 

Another phase of the war is seen and the destruction of 
war realized when we ask and answer the question, What 
were France, Belgium, Serbia, and the other nations in 
July, 1914, and what was their condition in July, 1919? A 
little study of the difference in the conditions at these two 
periods will teach us that while the war was a necessity in 
order that the democracy of yesterday and the civilization of 
today might not perish from the earth, the war, from the 
first to the last, was destruction and that of the most ruth- 
less and enormous kind. While it is true that there may 
be worse things than war, this one which began in August, 
1914, needs to be studied but a little to know that the de- 
struction of life and property was upon so gigantic a scale, 
that the number of. dead arid wounded and the millions upon 
millions of money seem only so many figures on the printed 
page — that and nothing more, for the average mind cannot 
comprehend the sum. That we may realize, as fully as pos- 
sible, what it all means and know how much better it would 
be if "nations would not learn war any more," let us ask 
what France was in July, 1914? The position of the repub- 
lic of France in the midst of the monarchies of Europe made 
it a necessity for her to fight for her existence. Because of 
the situation France came near being overrun and occu- 
pied by a foreign foe as were Belgium and Serbia. 

The French as a whole are a practical, patriotic, and 



276 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

home-loving people. It was the courage and fortitude of 
her soldiers, sustained by her patriotic citizenship and in- 
spired by the aid and spirit of the allied forces, that saved 
France from complete subjugation. 

France and her soldiers were sustained while passing 
through this furnace of fire by the rnemory of her heroic 
past. The background of her history contributed very great- 
ly to her spirit and conduct during the war. The glory of 
Joan of Arc, the greatness and military genius of Napoleon, 
and the patriotic fervor of La Fayette were seconded by the 
devotion of the French people. The memory of the spirit 
of 1870-1871 was a part of the heritage of this most worthy 
people. Some of the French girls were working in homes 
in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Washington, and Balti- 
more when the treaty was signed in 1871 which made France 
pay an indemnity of one billion of dollars to Germany be- 
sides the loss of Alsace-Lorraine. We are credibly told on 
good authority, that some of these French girls for the honor 
of France and because of their love for the home-land saved 
parts of their wages and sent them back to aid their fathers 
and mothers, their brothers and sisters, their friends and 
neighbors to pay the indemnity Germany had demanded in 
the treaty of settlement. It was a knowledge of the heroic 
past joined to a realization of that which was involved in the 
issues of the present which inspired the French at Verdun 
and at the Marne to stand in solid phalanx and to count their 
lives not *'dear unto themselves" if the glory of the past 
might live in the present and that the fields and cities of their 
fathers might not be trodden under the iron heel of the foe 
of political freedom and democratic civilization. What 
France was in July, 1914, is indicated by the diversity of her 
soil and climate, by the variety of her agricultural products, 
by the relation her people sustained to her 207,107 square 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 277 

miles of surface, by the fact that about three- fourths of the 
people live in the country and about one-half of the popula- 
tion live by growing wheat and corn, rye and oats, barley 
and sugar beets. To these industries they added the raising 
of cattle and horses, mules' and sheep. Before the war be- 
gan in August, 1914, France rivaled the world in the pro- 
duction of lace and jewels, carpets and porcelain, and she 
stood, at that time, among the first in educational advantages 
of the European nations. In July, 1919, many of her fields 
and farms were in desolation and many of her towns and 
cities were in ruins. Add to these material things the broken 
families, the deserted homes, the anguish and hopelessness 
of women and children who are waiting for the sound of 
footsteps which shall be heard not again, and the thousands 
upon multiplied thousands of her youth and men of strength 
who sleep in numbered and in unnumbered graves and we 
have a beginning of that which the war has cost one of the 
fairest countries of the earth. Well may we ask : What is 
the lesson America and the world of mankind ought to learn 
from this cruel war ? 

But France is not the only country to know the weight 
and strength of the iron heel of Prussian autocracy. It 
does not require much knowledge of Belgium and that which 
has taken place in that little country to count the cost of war 
and to measure the worth and opportunities of peace. Bel- 
gium is only about one-eighteenth as large as France and 
when the war began had a population of about 8,000,000. In 
the peaceful days of July, 1914, there were 703 persons for 
every square mile of surface. At that time, measured by 
the number of persons in the square mile, Belgium was the 
most populous country on the globe. Something is known 
by all of her great cities — Brussels, Antwerp, Liege, Lou- 
vain and Ghent — and that for which they stood and of which 



278 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

they gave promise in July, 1914. Before the war Belgium 
was the home of many great industries, great public li- 
braries, great schools of music, great schools of science 
and the fine arts. Her four great universities were in 
the same rank as those in the first rank in other countries. 
To her praise be it said, so far as we are able to judge, it 
was the courage and promptness of the Belgian king and 
army that enabled France to gain the time to make prepa- 
ration, in the beginning of the war, which saved the city of 
Paris from falling into the hands of the enemy. During the 
greater part of the 1559 days that war existed Belgium's soil, 
with the exception of a space of three or four townships, 
was occupied and her people were subject to the will 
and dictation of Germany. By means of a small publication 
in the form of a paper, King Albert kept in communication 
with his people. The king and queen were for much of 
the time in one of the small towns of France. From the 
beginning of the war to its close the king, the army, and 
the people were inspired with a lofty purpose and animated 
with undaunted courage. As in the case of France, so with 
Belgium, a comparison of the condition in 1919, with that 
in the first half of 1914, shows the desolation war has 
wrought and requires the civilized world to make such a 
condition and such destruction of life and property impos- 
sible in the future. 

To understand fully the lesson taught by a comparison 
of Serbia in July, 1919, with what she was in July, 1914, 
and to know how she came to be involved we must go back 
a little distance in time. Serbia, considered as a martyr na- 
tion, teaches the world that all honorable means ought to be 
employed before a call to arms is made against any people. 

It is sufficient for the present purpose to state that 
through the changes caused by the Russo-Turkish War the 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 279 

independence of Serbia was secured in 1882 and a youth of 
thirteen years was placed on the throne. This young man 
ruled, as regent, under the name of Alexander I until 1893, 
when he took full control. as king. In 1903 the king and 
Queen Draga were assassinated and Peter Karageorgevitch 
was declared king. He was the ruler when the war broke 
out in 1914. That which furnished the excuse for the war, 
on the part of Germany, was the assassination of the Aus- 
trian crown prince while he was in Bosnia. At first Serbia 
was able to withstand the blows of Germany. But in a very 
short time the German army sent into Serbia was so great 
in numbers that she could not stand the shock. The spectacle 
of the enslavement of some of the Serbian people and the 
driving of others of them into exile are among the most 
pathetic and heartless barbarities of the war. The Serbian 
government and people did everything a brave, capable, and 
courageous people could do. A glance at the map of Europe 
will show how difficult it was for France, or Belgium, or 
Great Britain, or any of the other allied nations, in the 
early part of the war especially, to come to the aid of Serbia. 
The only one of the allied nations that could have rendered 
material aid was Russia, and Russia even at that time, al- 
though it was not generally known, was in the throes of 
revolution. While the Serbians were accustomed to war, 
having taken part in the Balkan wars in 1912-13, and had an 
army made up of all the men able to bear arms whose ages 
were between twenty and fifty out of a population of 
2,500,000, they were not able to cope with the numbers and 
strength of German military power. The contrast in Serbia 
between the condition in July, 1919, and that of July,- 1914, 
teaches the same lesson which is told and is impressed by 
the suffering of Belgium and the sacrifices of France. 



280 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

CAUSES OF THE WORI.D WAR 

The lessons which the world war emphasizes for us and 
for all may be learned by knowing the causes and from 
them may be determined the things yet to be done before 
right and reason, justice and humanity, consideration and 
good will shall rule among the nations of the earth. In the be- 
ginning of the war the difficulty was between what are called 
the "Central Powers" — Germany and Austria — and the 
"Triple Entente" — Great Britain, France and Russia. The 
clash of arms was very sudden and to many people in all 
parts of the world it was unexpected. Many prophecies of 
the war had been made, from time to time, since 1870-1 and 
more particularly during the ten or fifteen years preceding 
August, 1914. The anticipations of war were based for the 
most part on what for the sake of clearness may be placed 
in three groups : 

1. The desire of Germany to extend her trade to all parts 
of the world and the spirit and methods by which her plans 
were to be carried into efifect. 

2. The desire of Germany to acquire and to control 
naval stations in great numbers and at places of the greatest 
advantage. 

3. The desire of Germany to wrest from Great Britain 
her power in western Asia and on the sea. The people and 
administration of the United States were not particularly 
concerned with these things except so far as there was un- 
rest, and as a consequence there was a constant tendency to 
disturb the peaceful relations which we sustained with all 
peoples. Even after a German submarine, on May 7, 1915, 
without any warning, sent the Lusitania, a British steamer, 
to the bottom of the ocean and with the ship more than one 
thousand men, women and children, one hundred and four- 
teen of whom were Americans, the government of the 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 281 

United States withheld the declaration of war and made 
other and added diplomatic efforts to stay the hand of the 
destroyer. To prevent the possibilities of Germany getting 
the Virgin Islands and thus gaining control of one of the 
approaches to the Panama Canal our government bought 
therh. The purchase was made from Denmark for $25,000,- 
000. By this purchase we secured one of the best harbors 
belonging to our island possessions. Instead of these 
diplomatic eft'orts and protests having any effect in stopping 
the war, it became evident that we were becoming more and 
more entangled every passing day. 

On the positive side three things were impelling forces in 
bringing the American government to the place where the 
declaration of war seemed the least that could be done : 

1. Germany, by the exercise of her war power had come 
into control of a vast empire. Her dictation extended far 
into Asia, over Turkey and Belgium, and from Austria to 
the North Sea. 

2. The brutal treatment of the people who were in the 
parts Germany occupied in northern France, Belgium, 
Serbia, Armenia, and Poland had much to do in causing the 
government to act. 

3. Germany proclaimed to the world by every movement 
after August 1, 1914, that she was a heartless, selfish 
autocrat. Germany was a government of military force and 
that force in control of a small number of "war lords." 
This meant but one thing if Germany were not defeated on 
the field of battle. It meant the control and the dictation of 
a government on the principle that "might makes right." 
It meant for France, for Belgium, for Serbia, for Great 
Britain, for the United States and for all other nations 
which should come within her grasp that which we may ex- 
press thus : We have the power and, therefore, we will, if 



282 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

we please, for "might makes right." This was the tone, the 
spirit, the arrogancy, and the defiance of the German "war 
lords." The first manifest result was that on April 6, 1917, 
Congress declared that Germany had brought on a state of 
war with the United States. At the same time Congress auth- 
orized the necessary equipment and the means by which the 
war could be carried to a successful issue. Among the things 
which it is well for us Americans to know and to appreciate, 
in connection with the great war, is the fact that in society 
everywhere and always, there are constantly two conflict- 
ing tendencies. One of these is the desire and tendency of 
the people to take more and more into their own hands the 
government of themselves and the administration of their 
own affairs. The other is the desire and efifort of the govern- 
ing class to restrict more and more the rule of the people 
and to secure for themselves greater and greater control. 
One of these is the opportunity of the people to work out 
their own destiny. The other is the, so called, "divine right 
of kings." It is seen in the rule of a class without any regard 
to the wishes of the people. Here were two principles in 
conflict and this conflict had much to do both as a direct and 
as an indirect cause of the war. 

It was the uprising of the people which overthrew the 
French monarchy and estabHshed, in its stead, a republic. 
The same kind of a movement separated Greece, Bulgaria, 
Rumania, Serbia, and Albania from the rule of the Turkish 
government. It was the same spirit and principle which 
separated Belgium from Holland and enabled other peoples 
to take into their own hands their political destiny. It was 
a counter movement which caused the formation of 
the German Confederation. Because Prussia was the strong- 
est of the states forming the Confederation and Bismarck, 
the prime minister of Prussia, was a man of "blood and 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 283 

iron" the German Empire took on the form, spirit and 
character of the largest state and became imbued with the 
desires and thoughts of Bismarck. 

The spirit and purpose of the Third French RepubHc — 
which is the government of France today — in 1870 were 
directly opposed to the autocratic empire on the other side 
of the Rhine. The same opposition to military life and 
standards had prevailed in Great Britain for many years. 
Before the formation of the German Empire and its con- 
trol by Bismarck, for hundreds of years England and Scot- 
land and Ireland had prospered under free institutions and 
representative government. Changes and reforms of various 
kinds had been brought about by lawful and peaceful means. 
Because of this Great Britain's old aristocratic form and 
spirit had been replaced by a government resting on demo- 
cratic principles. 

Because of Great Britain's obligation to Belgium deter- 
mined by treaty agreements, because of the sacred principles 
for which the people and the government stood, and because 
of her investments in many parts of the world Great Britain 
did every thing that diplomatic experience and intelligence 
could do to prevent the war. 

Like ourselves. Great Britain was not prepared for war 
August 1, 1914, except upon the sea. The British navy was 
prepared for any emergency because it had been developed 
to protect her merchant vessels which visited all the ports of 
the world. Another thing which caused Great Britain to de- 
sire peace on the one hand and to withstand Germany on the 
other was the relation she sustained to her colonies and the 
friendly relations these colonies sustained to the peoples of 
the earth. Great Britain's colonial system had been de- 
veloped so that while it formed a great empire it was guided 
by the principles of English liberty and was administered 



284 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

by representative government. For an hundred years and 
more the poHcy of Great Britain had been to organize her 
colonies into self-governing states. Thus there was w^hat we 
' may call a federal government in Canada, in Australia, and 
in South Africa. They are, in fact, three British democ- 
racies within the British Empire. Because of this condition, 
because of the relations Canada and the others sustained to 
the United States, and because Great Britain felt her re- 
sponsibility for free peoples and for free expression on the 
part of the democratic governments of the earth she called 
to arms when diplomatic efforts failed. The spirit and at- 
titude, the efforts and sacrifices, the loyalty to principle and 
desire for the welfare of all on the part of the British, 
ought not to be forgotten. The British soldier and seaman 
stood manfully at the post of duty. The generous support of 
the British people from the islands and from the different 
provinces are worthy of all praise. The British in this great 
struggle were worthy companions of France, Belgium, 
Serbia, Italy, the United States and the others whose swords 
were unsheathed and whose armies marched at the call of 
freedom. 

No small consideration is due to the Red Cross, to the' 
Y. M. C. A., to the Y. W. C. A., to the churches, to the 
social and fraternal orders of different kinds, and to many 
individual men and women. They furnished much of the 
moral and financial support which made victory certain. 
History will not let the world forget the uncounted thou- 
sands of starving people of all classes in Belgium, Serbia, 
Armenia, and elsewhere who have been fed and clothed by 
the contributions of the peoples and governments of sym- 
pathetic nations during the years of this conflict. 

The grateful peoples of the earth will long remember the 
ideals, purposes, and cooperation of President Woodrow 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 285 

Wilson, Premier Lloyd George, Premier Georges Clemen- 
ceau, Premier Vittorio Emanuele Orlando and others on 
whose shoulders the burdens rested and to whom all looked 
for direction and leadership. To many of those associated 
with these men equal honor is due. The number is so great 
that even the names cannot be recorded in this connection. 
The world of mankind will always owe a debt to Marshal 
Ferdinand Foch, General Joseph Jacques Joffre, General 
Julian H. G. Byng, Marshal Douglas Haig, General John J. 
Pershing and to many other great leaders, in the allied 
armies and navies who made possible the armistice and the 
final day of peace. 

When the full text of the history shall have been written 
no less honor and no less appreciation shall rest upon the 
rank and file — the common soldiers and seamen — who 
fought the battles of freedom. This will apply to those 
who did faithful service in this land, as well as to those who 
went to a foreign shore, to those who returned to home and 
country, and to those whose bodies lie in lands beyond 
the sea. 

Remembering the millions of the bravest and strongest 
sons of Europe and America who sleep beneath the sod as 
the result of this cruel war the students who study this 
history will appreciate the poem of Lieutenant Colonel John 
D. McCrea. It was written during the second battle of 
Ypres in April, 1915. The author was killed January 28, 
1918. Before going to the army he was a practising physi- 
cian in Montreal, Canada. The words of this poem will 
help to keep alive, in our memories, the sacrifices of the 
brave men who fought and died and, as well, our duty to 
the living. 



286 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

In Flander's fields, the poppies blow 
Between the crosses, row on row. 
That mark our place, and in the sky, 
The larks, still bravely singing, fly, 
Scarce heard amid the guns below. 

We are the dead ; short days ago 
We lived, felt dawn, saw sunset glow. 
Loved and were loved, and now we lie 
In Flanders fields. 

Take up our quarrel with the foe ! 
To you from falling hands we throw 
The torch ; be yours to hold it high ! 
If ye break faith with us who die, 
We shall not sleep, though poppies grow, 
In Flanders fields. 



HISTORICAL OUTLINE 



BY PROFESSOR C. N. ANDE:RS0N 



L Nebraska as nature left it 

(Observe benefits offered to man and their influ- 
ence on man) 

A. Land, streams, drainage. 

B. Grasses, trees, wild fruits, and vegetables. 

C. Minerals. 

D. Fish and game. 

E. Inducements and obstacles to settlements. 
II. Indian occupants 

A. Characteristics of Indians. 

B. Traders and Indians. 

C. Reasons why whites dispossessed Indians. 

(Were both at fault?) 
III. Travel and trails 

A. General travels to the northwest. 

L Curiosity and restlessness. Why? 

2. Desire for trade and discovery of gold. 
(Would you like to explore a new coun- 
try? Why?) 

B. Travel and trails in Nebraska. 

1. Followed streams. Give three or more 
reasons. 

2. Objects at end of trails. 

3. Various trails — Oregon, Mormon, and 
local trails. Also overland mail, pony ex- 
press, telegraph line, and Union Pacific 

287 



288 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

Railroad. Trace the development from the 
Indian path to the Union Pacific Railroad. 

4. Cattle trails, south to north. 

5. Navigation of Missouri and attempts at 
navigating other streams. 

C. Show how all this movement illustrates the 
ambition of man and advanced civilization. 
IV. Travel and traffic in Nebraska demand organized gov- 
ment 

A. Louisiana Purchase. 

B. Nebraska organized. 

1. Two questions, Indians and slaves. 

2. Form of government, part federal and part 
local. 

C. Coming of the settlers, desire for land and 

homes. 

1. New towns and newspapers. 

2. Claims (first farms). 

3. Early locations, where and why? 

4. Introduction of counties, schools, roads, 
and other necessities. 

D. Legislature and laws. 

L Fundamental laws passed. 

E. Land surveys, banks and finance, political par- 

ties, and other evidences of organized so- 
ciety. 
V. Growth and development of Nebraska 

(Take each of the following topics and others that 
may be suggested and trace their growth and de- 
velopment in Nebraska, using this book and others 
for sources of information. Consult persons of your 
community who are familiar with these topics.) 
A. Legislatures and important acts. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 289 

B. Schools. 

1. Country schools. 

2. High schools. 

3. State normals. 

4. Agricultural college. 

5. State University. 

6. Parochial schools. 

7. Girls' and boys' industrial schools. 

8. School for feeble minded and school for 
blind. 

9. Indian schools. 

C. Railroads. 

1. Building railroads. 

2. Land grants. 

3. Overthrowing power of railroads in legis- 
latures. 

4. Legislative control of railroads. 

5. Service of railroads to Nebraska. 

D. Extension of settlements from east to west in 

the state. 
L Immigration. 

2. Struggles of the settlers. 

3. Frontier at different dates. 

E. Farming in Nebraska. 
L An early farm. 

2. A modern farm. 

3. Compare the two as to improvements, ma- 
chinery, and kind, quantity, and value of 

products. 

F. The prohibition question. 

1. From the early day to the passing of the 
constitutional amendment in 1916. 



290 SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 

G. Dairy industry. 

1. Growth of creameries. 

2. Cream separator. 

3. Statistics. 

H. Populist movement of 1890 to 1900. 

1. Causes. 

2. Actions. 

3. Results. 

I. Banks and banking. (See your local banker.) 

1. Early wild-cat banks. 

2. National and state banks. 

3. Growth. 

4. Bank guaranty law. 

5. Assets today. 
J. The Press. 

1. Early papers and their names. 

2. Additional papers. 

3. Chief papers of the state. 
4. Benefits. 

TOPICS FOR WRITTEN RECITATIONS 

State flower. 

Trans-Mississippi Exposition. 
Arbor Day. 
Kinkaid homesteads. 
Semi-centennial celebration. 
Grass-hoppers (consult old settlers.) 
State penitentiary. 
State hospitals. 
State fisheries. 

Farmers' organizations (can be used as subject for de- 
bate.) 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 291 

Foreign immigration. 
Telephones (growth of systems). 
Beet sugar industry. 
State fair. 
Churches. 

(Select others) 



JOHN LEE WEBSTER 

The central figure in the semi-centennial celebration was 
Honorable John Lee Webster of Omaha. Upon the ap- 
proach of the semi-centennial of the state, he proposed to 
the State Historical Society the holding of an historical 
pageant that would symbolize not only the development of 
the state, but also, the opening up of the great west. The 
idea appealed to the members of the society. It was such 
a large undertaking that Webster was galled upon to take 
the chairmanship of the committee in order to carry out 
his plans. 

Webster is w^ell known as a collector of art treasures and 
is the founder of the Friends of Art Association of Omaha. 
He received his inspiration for this association from travels 
in Europe where he visited all of the principal museums, 
picture galleries, and libraries. These historic relics sug- 
gested the idea of collecting and preserving important man- 
uscripts and relics of the history of Nebraska. After in- 
vestigation, he found a society devoted to this purpose, but 
there appeared to be but little method in its procedure. 
Webster at once set to work connecting up the different out- 
standing features of the history of the state. His endeavors 
were soon recognized and he was chosen president of the 
Nebraska Historical Society, which honor he held for many 
years. 



292 



INDEX 



Adams, Captain C. E., 242 
Adams, John Quincy, 85 
Adelia, 149 

Advertiser, The, 142, 183 
Agricultural college, 187; see 

University of Nebraska 
Agricultural development, 92, 

179, 202; education, 264; see 

Farming 
Agricultural products, 179, 182 
Aksarben, 266 
Albania, 282 

Albert, King of the Belgians, 278 
Aldrich, Chester H., 257, 258, 259 
Alexander I., King of the Serb- 
ians, 279 
Alfalfa, 180, 232, 233 
Algonkian, 18 
Allen, William V., 240 
Allied nations, 272, 273, 279; 

population of, in the World 

War, 274 
Allis, Samuel, 179 
Alluvium, 9 
Alma, 7 
Altitude, 9 
Alton, 117 
Amendments, see Constitutional 

amendments 
American buflfalo, 15, 18, 180; 

pictures of, 16 
American Fur Company, 51, 77, 

81, 113, 115, 169 
American Smelting and Refining 

Company, 180 



American Southwest, 56 

Animal life, 14 

Annexation to Kansas proposed, 
153 

Antelope, 15 

Anti-lobbying law, 255 

Anti-monopolist party, 220; see 
Monopolies 

Anti-pass law, 255 

Anti-Prohibition convention, 217 

Antwerp, 277 

Apaches, 176 

Appalachians, 18 

Apportionment, 111, 152 

Arapahoes, 18, 20, 23, 176 

Arbor day, 197, 222, 250 

Architecture among the plains 
tribes of Indians, 22 

Arickaree formation, 161, 245 

Arikara village, 38, 40, 56 

Arikaras, 168 

Arkansas, 101, 107 

Arkansas river, 39, 17o 

Armenia, 281 

Arrow, The, 113, 182 

Ash Creek, 59, 660 

Ash Hollow, 59, 60, 173; cam- 
paign of, 207 

Ashley, Colonel, 168, 169 

Asia, 88, 281 

Associate Justices, 111 

Astor, John Jacob, 39, 77 

Astor, William B., 77 

Astoria, 40 

Astoria Expedition, 39, 40, 56 



294 STUDENTS HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 



Astorians, 40, 47 

Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe 

Railroad, 90,^ 97 
Atchison, 72, 7Z 
Atchinson, General Henry, 42 
Athens, 117 
Atkinson, Colonel Henry, 167, 

169 
Australia, 284 

Australian ballot system, 225, 234 
Austria Hungary, 273, 281 
Austrian crown prince, 279 

Babcock, W. N.s 248 

Bad Lands, 149, 227, 237; sec 

Little Bad Lands 
Badger, 15 
Balkan wars, 279 
Bank charters, 138, 139, 143 
Bank guarantee law, 249, 265 ; 

see Nebraska guarantee law 
Banking \7iw,ssee State Banking 

law ' 

Banks, 138 ; see State Banking 

law 
Baptist church, 178 
Barnum, Guy C., 166 
Bartley, State Treasurer, 243, 

244, 250 
Base line, 134, 135 
Battle Creek campaign, 173, 175 
Battle of Wounded Knee, 228, 

230 
Bear River, 68 
Bears, 15 

Beatrice land office, 194 
Beaver, 15 
Beet sugar* industry, 231 ; see 

Sugar beets 
Belgian industries, 278 



Belgium, 274, 277, 279, 281, 282, 

283; industries of, 278 
Belle Fontaine, 39 
Bellevue, 28, 30, 2,7, 38, 40, 46, 52, 

111, 113, 115, 117, 121, 126, 131, 

136, 137, 178, 179 
Bellevue College, 137 
Bennett, Hiram P, 138 
Berge, George W., 250 
Big Blue river; see Blue river, 

big 
Big Foot, 228 
Big Horn river, 46 
Big Nemaha river; see Nemaha 

river, big 
Bills, Colonel C. J., 246 
Bismark, 77, 282 
Bison, 15 
Black, Governor Samuel W, 118, 

152, 156, 160 
Blackbird County, 128 
Black Fox, 230 
Black Hills, 161, 209 
"Black Robe", 54; see DeSmet, 

Peter J. 
Blackfeet Indians, 40 
Blair, 96 
Blizzards, 110 
Blue Ribbon clubs, 209 
Blue river, Big, 58, 131 
Blue river. Little, 47, 58 
Bluff City, 115 
Board of agriculture, sec State 

board of agriculture 
Board of Control, sec State 

board of control 
Board of health, see State 

board of health 
Board of transportation, 223 
Boats, see bull boats, keel boats. 



INDEX 



295 



mackinaw boats, steam boats 
''Bone-Dr}^" law, 261 
Bonneville, Captain Benjamin 

Louis Eulalia, 47, 48, 58, 62, 

171 
Bonneville's Adventures, 48 
Bordeaux, 172 

Border, viewing of the, 35, 92 
"Border Ruffians," 163 
Bosinia, 279 
Boundary line, 134 
Bounty, on wild animals killed, 

212 
Boutwell amendment, 165 
Bowen, General Leavitt L., 154, 

176 
Box Butte County, 5 
Boyd contest, 234 
Boyd, Governor James E., 213, 

220, 226, 234, 238 
Boys' industrial school, 212 
Bradley, James, 111 
Bratt, Colonel John P., 246 
Brazil, 274 
Brick, 9 
Bridges, 129; first, 78; locations 

of, 147 
British, 167 

British colonial system, 283 
British democracies, 284 
British Empire, see Great Britain 
British navy, 283 
British traders, 42, 167 
Bronchos, 74 
Brooke, John R., 166 
Brown County, 11 
Brown, Guy A., 204 
Brown, Norris, 254 
Brownville, 76, 126, 131, 152 
Bruce, E. E., 248 



Brule formation, 149, 161 

Brule Sioux, 25, 171 

Brussels, 277 

Bryan, Charles, 260 

Bryan, William Jennings, 225, 
235, 238, 240, 244, 246, 248, 249, 
260 

Bryan-Thurston campaign, 242 

Bryant, 59, 62 

Buchanan, President, 144 

Buffalo, see American buffalo 

"Buffalo Bill," see Cody, W. F. 

Buffalo "chips," 18 

Buffalo County, 128 

Buffalo grass, 98 

Bulgaria, 274, 282 

Bull Bear, 24 

Bull boat, 49, 79 

Bull Head, 228 

Bureau of labor, census, and in- 
dustrial statistics, 223 

Burlington and Missouri River 
Railroad, 95, 96, 191, 213, 222 

Burt, Dr. Armistead, 116 

Burt County, 120, 121 

Burt, Governor Francis, 111, 114, 
116 

Buss, Rev. W. H., 268 

Butler, Governor David, 160, 166, 
186, 192, 197 

Butterfield, John, 71 

Byng, General Julian H. G., 285 

Cady, Addison E., 253 
Calhoun, The, 44 
Calhoun, John, 134, 141 
Calhoun, Stephen H., 217 
California, 59; gold discovered 

in, 71 
Calvary cemetery, 53 



296 STUDENTS HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 



Camp Dewey, 246 

Camp Floyd, 74 

Camp Missouri, 36, 42, 167 

Campaigns, see Political cam- 
paigns 

Canada, 274, 284 

Canvass of the vote, 226 

Canyons, 5 

Capital, 113, 125. 126, 142, 144, 
146, 147, 152, 180, 186, 191, 200, 
204; see Territorial capital. 

Capital commissioners, 186, 191, 
192 

Capitol building, 187, 210, 212, 
223, 261 ; first, 123, 124, 141 

Capitol Hill, 143 

"Capitol square," 146 

Cargoes, 79 

Carpenter. D. W., 183 

"Carpet-bag government," 110 

"Carpet-baggers," 142 

Carson City, 74 

Carson, Kit, 49 

Casper, 68 

Cass County, 120, 126 

Catholic church, 179 

Catholic missionaries, 53 

Cattle, 7, 97, 98, 215, 216 

Cattle ranges, 97, 98, 215 

Cattle towns, 97 

Cattle Trail, 97, 98 

Cattlemen, 97, 215 

Cavalry, Troop A, 247; Troop K, 
247 

Cement, 7 

Cement mill, 8 

Census; first, in Nebraska, 120, 
121 ; second, 129, 136 

Central Pacific, 93 



Central Overland California and 
Pike's Peak Express, 71, 74 

Central powers, 280 

Cession of Louisiana Purchase, 
101 

Chalk, 7 

Chamberlain, 11 

Chapman, Bird B., 138 

Cherry County, 11 

Cheyennes, 18, 20, 23, 176 

Chicago, 92, 117 

Chicago and Northwestern Rail- 
road, n, 96 

Chicago, Rock Island and Pa- 
cific Railroad, 96 

Chickamauga Park, 246 

Chief Bear, 172 

Chief Justice, territorial. 111 

Chimney Rock, 58, 62, 63 

China, 274 

Chittenden, Captain, 77 

Chouteau, 115 

Chouteau, Pierre, 37, 38, 49, 51, 
172 

Christian church, 179 

Churches, 177, 178, 179 

Cities, government of, 258 

City of Mexico, 30 

Civil code, see Laws 

Civil war, 72, 92, 103, 105, 162, 
163, 167, 176; Indian hostilities 
during, 174 

Civilization, 167 

Claimants, 132, 133 

Claim cabin, first in Nebraska, 
131 

Claim clubs, 132 

Claim jumper, 133 

Claims, 132, 133 



INDEX 



297 



Clark, Champ, 259 

Clark, Captain W., 33, 34, 46 

Clay, 9 

Clay County, 128 

Clemenceau, Premier Georges, 

285 
Cleveland, President Grover, 

236 
Climate, 97 ; see Temperature 
Coal, 90, 182 
Code of laws, see Laws 
Code of procedure, 151 
Cody, William F., 75 
Colby, Brigadier General L. W., 

231 
Colonies, British, 284 
Colonization, 40 
Colorado, 101 
Columbia river, 37, 56, 68; fur 

trade, 40, 48, 56 ; settlement, 40 
Columbian exposition, 240 
Columbus, 52 
Comanches,] 176 
Coming of the people, 109 
Commerce, 88, 100, 166, 212 ; map 

of commercial position, 263; 

see River traffic 
Commission form of govern- 
ment, 258 
Commissioner of immigration, 

196 
Commissioners of public lands, 

150, 191, 192 
Committee on elections, 138 
Commonwealth, The, 187 
Concord Stage-coach, 72; see 

Stage-coach 
"Conestoga Freighter," see 

Prairie Schooner 
Congregational church, 179 



Congress, 81, 83, 85, 88, 92, 104, 
105, 107, 165 

Congress declares war on Ger- 
many, 282 

Congressional act, 88, 90, 109, 
133, 134, 252 

Congressional campaign, 159 

Congressional committee, 87 

Congressional delegate, see Del- 
egates to Congress 

Congressional districts, 234 

Congressional laws, see Congres- 
sional act 

Conkling, Judge Alfred, 156 

Connor, Alexander H., 204 

Constitution, 157, 163, 165, 198, 
204, 205, 206 ; ratified, 205 ; see 
State constitution 

Constitutional amendments, 206, 
258, 259, 260, 261, 262 

Constitutional convention, 186, 
204, 225, 226, 240, 264; pro- 
cedure of, 205 

Constitutional delegates, 204 

Convict labor, 212, 218, 260 

Cooley, Thomas M., 103 

Cooper, F. 1 

Cordelle, 79 

Corn, 182, 202 

Corporations, 128, 207, 218; laws 
of, 128; see Laws 

Coronado, Francisco Vasquez 
de, 30, 182 

Coronado's Expedition, 30 

Corporation tax law, 256 

Corrupt practices act, 249 

Cortes, 46 

Costa Rica, 274 

Coulton, Lieutenant - Colonel 
George R., 246 



298 STUDENTS HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 



Council Bluffs, 44, 83, 85, 113, 
115, 124, 167; explorers camp 
at, 36, 37; military post, 44, 
167; trading post, 46 

Council Bluffs and Nebraska 
Ferry Company, 123, 132 

Council Grove, 55 

Council Point, 115 

Counties, 128, 134, 138, 141, 195, 
212; first, 120; first eight or- 
ganized, 119; map of, 119; 
high schools in, 264; redis- 
tricted, 264; reduction in size 
of, 260 

County commissioners, 152 

County high schools, 264 

County option, 257 

Court House Rock, 60, 61, 207 

Courts, 136 

Cowboys, 97 

"Cow Towns," 97 

Coyotes, 9 

Cozad, 90 

Crawford, 96 

Cream separators, 245 

Creameries, 245 

Criminal code, 128, 142, 143, 151; 
see Laws 

Crooks, Ramsey, 38, 58 

Crops, 180, 182, 202, 207, 210, 
239; failure of, 150 

Crouse, Lorenzo, 166, 236, 238 

"Crow Dog," 26 

Crow Foot, 228 

Crow Indians, 41 

Crows, 24 

Croxton, 194 

Cuba, 274 

Culver, Lieutenant Elvin S., 247 



Culver, Captain Jacob H., 247 
Cuming, Acting Governor 

Thomas B., Ill, 117, 118, 121, 

122, 123, 125, 126, 144, 146, 148, 

176 
Cuming county, 128, 131 
Curtisj General, 85 
Custer, Colonel, 23 
Custer massacre, 97, 228; see 

Massacres 

Danlan, James C, 257 

Daily, Samuel G., 155, 156, 159 

Daily mail, 73 

Dakota City, 83, 152 

Dakota City land office, 194 

Dakota County, 128 

Dakotas, 18, 24 

Dawes, James W., 216, 217 

Dawes County, 5 

Dewesse, J. W., 222 

Deadwood Stage Coach, 4 

Declaration of war, 281 

Deer, 15 

Delegate to Congress, 110, 123, 

137, 154, 157, 159, 178 
Democracy, 275 
Democratic convention, 148, 150, 

189, 217, 220, 224, 235, 240, 254 
Democratic delegate convention, 

154, 166 
Democratic party, 148, 159, 165, 

192, 203, 204 
Democratic principles, 283 
Denmark, 274, 281 
Denver, 73, 82 
DeSmet, Peter J., S. J., 53, 54, 

64, 66, 67, 179 
Deuel Countv, 24 



INDEX 



299 



Development, 96 

Dietrich, Governor Charles H., 

249 
Diplomatic efforts to avoid war, 

281 
Direct primary law, 254, 255, 256 
Discovery, 18, 45 
Dismal river, 98 
District attorney, territorial, 110, 

111 
District school board, 130 
"Divine right of kings," 282 
Dodge, Major-General Grenville 

M, 88, 89 
Dodge County, 120, 121 
Dodge City, 97 
Domestic science, 264 
Doniphan, Colonel, IZ 
Douglas, 142 
Douglas, Stephen A., 152 
Douglas County, 120, 121. 124, 

142 
Downs, Hiram P., 176 
Draga, Queen of the Serbians, 

279 
Dred Scott Case, 103 
Droughts, 110, 180, 202, 234, 238, 

239, 244 
Drum, Colonel, 228 , 
Dry farming, 253 
Dubuque, 85 
"Dug Out," 2, 180 
Dugan, Major Harry F., 247 
Dunbar, Rev. John, 179 
Dunby County, 49 
Durant, Thomas C, 87, 88 
Dwell in Sight, 241 

Eager, Lt. Col. Frank D., 246 
Early locations, \\\ 



Early Navigation on the Mis- 
souri River, 77 
Early settlers, 18, 28, 104, 132. 

150, 153, 156, 160, 170, 173, 196, 

207, 216, 239; -.y^^ Settlements 
Early towns, 113 
Economic conditions, 259 
Education, compulsory law, 223 ; 

see School system 
Eight o'clock closing law, 256 
Elections, state, 159, 166, 206, 

248, 250, 262; territorial. 111, 

123, 137, 155 
Election laws, 256; see Direct 

primary law 
Elective railway commission ; see 

Railway commission 
Elk, 15 
Elkhorn, 52 

Elkhorn river, 52, 116, 140, 156 
Elkhorn valley, 173, 215 
Emancipation Proclamation, 107 
Emigrant trains, 173 
Emigrants, 59, 60, 62, 173 
Employees' compensation act, 

254, 265 
Enabling act, 163 
Enfield rifles, 175 
England; see Great Britain 
Episcopalian church, 179 
Estabrook, Experience, 111, 154, 

156 
Estes Park, 42 
Europe, 88; war in, 261, 262 
Evening World, The, 184 
Expedition, The, 44 
Expedition against the Arikaras, 

168; against the Indians, 157, 

168, 169 
Experiment stations, 223, 250 



300 



STUDENTS HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 



Explorations, 30, 32, 33, 36, 37, 
39, 40, 41, 45, 47, 48. 49, 50 

Explorers, 15, 30, 32, 33, 37, 38, 
39, 40, 41, 45, 47, 48, 49, 50, 136 

Express companies, law govern- 
ing, 256 

Farmers, 215, 218, 253 

Farm home, modern, 3 

Farmer's alliance, 203, 214, 224 

Farmer's organizations, 203, 224 

Farmers' Union, 250 

Farming, 202; see Agriculture 

Farms, 136; first, 132 

Federal census, 207 

Federal constitution, 255 

Federal government ; sec Gov- 
ernment, Federal 

Feeble minded; see Nebraska 
institute for 

Ferguson, Chief Justice Fenner, 
111, 117, 136 

Ferries ; see Ferry boats 

Ferry boats, 52, 115, 116, 123, 129, 
140, 152 

Fertilizer, 5 

Fetterman, Colonel, 23 

Ficklin, B. F., 73 

Finances; see State finances 

Financial conditions, 259; see 
Financial panic. Panic 

Financial panic of 1893, 238 

Fire chief, 247 

First Nebraska regiment, 246 

"Flanders Fields," a poem, 286 

"Flat Water," 103 

Flora, 109; see Flowers 

Florence, 69, 70, 146 

Flowers, 14 

Floyd, Sergeant, 36 



Floyd river, 36 

Foch, Marshal Ferdinand, 285 

Fontenelle, 128, 173 

Fontenelle, Logan, 24, 28, 29 

Fontenelle, Lucien, 28 

Food, 18, 180 ; see Pure food law 

Food commission, 249 

Foothills, 14 

Foreign immigration, 209 

Foreigners; see Immigration 

Forney County, 120, 128 

Fort Atkinson, 36, 42, 167, 168, 

169 
Fort Benton, 77, 97 
Fort Bridger, 71, 74 
Fort Calhoun, 36, 111, 116; see 

Fort Lisa 
Fort Henry, 40 
Fort Kearny, 4, 24, 51, 71, 74, 76, 

82, 83, 106, 109, 111, 112, 115, 

171, 188 
Fort Kearny Herald, The, 185 
Fort Laramie, 28, 67, 71, 74, 109, 

110, 171 
Fort Leavenworth, 42, 50 
Fort Lisa, 46, 111, 169 
Fort McPherson, 174 
Fort Mandan, 46 
Fort Recovery, 169 
Fort Ridgely, 84 
Fort Tecumseh, 77 
Fort Union, 77 
Fort Vancouver, 58 
Fort Yates, 228 
Fort Yuma, 71 
Fortieth parallel, 134 
Fox Indians, 105 
Foxes, 15 
France, 100, 272, 275, 276, 277, 

279, 280, 28:i 



INDEX 



301 



Franklin, 56 

Franklin Intelligencer, 44 

Free coinage of silver, 236, 240 

Free homestead law ; see Home- 
stead law 

Free instituitons, 283 

"Free Silver" ; see Free coinage 
of silver 

Freeman, Daniel, 160 

Freight rate law, 256 

Freighters, 71 

Fremont, 26, 30 

Fremont, General, 85 

Fremont, Lieutenant J. C, 49, 50, 
58, 109 

Fremont's Expedition, 48, 50 

French government, 101 

French industries, 277 

French people, 275, 276 

French Republic, Third, 283 

French traders, 37 

Friends of art association, 292 

Frontier settlements, 176; see 
Settlements 

Frost, 11 

Furnas, Colonel Robert W., 152, 
182, 184, 192, 200, 201, 222 

Fur trade; see Fur traders 

Fur traders, 37, 38, 40, 42, 45, 47, 
52, 54, 56, 79, 109, 111, 167 

"Fusion" ticket, 200 

Fusionist, 248, 250 

Gage, Rev. W. D., 124 

Gage County, 128, 160 

Galicia, 30 

Game, 109; see Animal life 

Garber, Governor Silas, 203, 204, 

210 
Gardner, James G., 203 



Gautemala, 274 

Genoa, 26 

Geology, 3 

George, Premier Lloyd, 285 

German confederacy, 282 

German empire, 283 

German military power, 279 

Germany, 273, 279, 280, 281 

Ghent, 277 

Ghost dance; see Indian Ghost 
dance 

Ghost shirts, 230 

Giddings, Napoleon B., 123 

Gillespie, John, 166, 191, 198 

Girls' industrial school, 234 

Gold, 180 

Goldenrod; see State flower 

Good Templar societies, 209 

Goodrich, St. John, 166 

Government, Federal, 88, 97 

Government agency, 115 

Government experiment stations, 
250 

Government land; see Public 
lands 

Government of Nebraska, 103, 
104, 108, 110, 111, 165 

Government schools, 177 

Governor, first, 166 

Governors, state, 186, 192, 200, 
204, 210, 218, 223, 234, 238, 242, 
249, 250, 255, 258, 261 ; territor- 
ial, 110, 111, 116, 117 

Governor's messages, 125, 141, 
146, 156, 163, 210, 234, 239; 
proclamations, 163, 165, 222 

Grand Island, 48, 58, 96, 131, 231 

Grand Pawnee, 23 

Grand river, 40, 228 

Grange, 203 



302 STUDENTS HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 



Grasshopper bonds, 210 
Grasshoppers, 180, 202, 206; 

plague of, 207, 208 
Grattan, Lieutenant John L., 171 
Grattan massacre, 171, 173 
Grazing, 12 
Great American Desert, 1, 2, 9, 

182 
Great Bend, 30 
Great Britain, 88, 100, 272, 279, 

280, 283, 284 
Great Falls of the Missouri river, 

83 
Great Medicine Road of the 

Whites, 68 
Great Plains, 97 
Great Plains, 2, 3, 14, 41, 54, 77, 

97, 190, 195; travel across, 59, 

169 
Great Salt Lake, 70 
"Great Seal," of Nebraska, 144 
Great Spirit, 227 
Great West, 64 
Greece, 274 

Green, William L., 240 
Greene County, 128 
Ground squirrel, 17 
' Gulf coast country, 97 
Gwin, Senator W. M., 73 

Haig Marshai, Douglas, 285 

Haiti, 274 

Half-breeds, 109 

"Hand Cart Expedition," 69 

Hanscom, A. J, 92, 124 

Han scorn Park, 92 

Harden, E. R., Ill 

Harney, General William S., 173, 

207 
Harrison, William Henry, 104 



Haskell, John D., 268 

Haskell Ode contest, 268 

Hat Creek basin, 161 

Hatch law, 223 ; see Experiment 
stations 

Havana, 246 

Hay, 9 

Hayward, Monroe L., 217, 248 

Hebron, 58 

Hendricks, Thomas A., 150 

Herd, 98 

High Plains, 3, 5 

High school, free tuition law, 264 

Highways, 83, 85, 134 ; see Roads 

History of the American Fur 
Trade, 66 

History of Custer County, The, 
215 

History of Gage County, Ne- 
braska, 160 

History of the Union Pacific 
Railzvay, 95 

Hitchcock, Gilbert M, 143, 184, 
248, 254, 260 

Hitchcock, Phineas W., 196 

Hoel, A. R, 196 

Holcomb, Governor Silas A., 
240, 241, 242, 244 

Holladay, Benjamin, 73 

Holland, 274, 282 

Homes, 180 

Homestead law, 132, 133, 155, 
160, 215 

Hondurus, 274 

Hotchkiss guns, 230 

House of representatives; see 
State house of representatives, 
territorial house of representa- 
tives 

Homesteader, 252 



INDEX 



303 



Homesteads, 194, 252 

Houses, 194; see "Dug-out," 

"Soddy" 
Howell, R. B, 259 
Huffaker, T. S., 55 
Hunt, Wilson, 40, 56 
Hunting grounds; see Indian 

Hunting grounds 
Huntsman's Echo, The, 20, 185 
Hymn to Nebraska, 269 

Immigration, 163, 195, 196, 209; 
see Commissioner of immigra- 
tion, foreign 

Immigrants, 137, 163, 195, 215 

Impeachment, 210; of Governor 
Butler, 197; of Auditor Gil- 
lespie, 198 

Improvements, 210 

Inaugural addresses, 200; see 
Governor's messages 

Income tax law, 255 

Independence, 44, 56, 58, 68, 71 

Independence Cut Off, 48, 58 

Independence Rock, 68 

Independence party, 204, 224; see 
People's Independent party 

Indian; agencies, 113, 115, 169, 
173, 257; agents, 167, 169 
architecture, 22 ; chieftians, 24 
councils, 36, 37, 67; country 
50, 68, 79, 83,93, 104, 109, 129: 
depredations, 156, 167, 171 
173 ; ghost dance, 226, 227, 228 
homes, 20, 21, 22, 228; hostili- 
ties during the Civil War, 175 ; 
hunting grounds, 23, 24, 104, 
169 ; lands, ceded to the United 
States, 23, 104, 105, 134; lan- 
guages, 18; massacres, see 



Massacres; Missionaries, 177, 
179; question, 167, 227; reser- 
vations, 23, 24, 105, 138, 202; 
rights in Nebraska, 104, 209; 
schools, 257 ; scouts, 230 ; trad- 
ing, 79; trails, 55; travel, 20, 
55; treaties, 24, 54, 167, 169, 
170, 177, 209; tribes and their 
distribution, 18, 19, 24 ; map of 
tribes, 19; troubles, 163, 168, 
202, 209, 226; warfare, 21, 23, 
24, 28, 29, 36, 93, 97, 125, 169; 
weapons, 23 

Indiana, 104 

Indians, 18; expedition against, 
157 

Indian Territory, 23, 103, 104 

Industrial conditions, 194, 238, 
259 

Inhabitants; of Louisiana Pur- 
chase, 101, 137; of Nebraska 
territory, 120 

Industrial school; see Boys' in- 
dustrial school, Girls' indus- 
trial school 

Initiative and referendum, 206, 
245, 258 

Insane (Asylum) Hospital, 192, 
196, 198, 221, 223; board of 
control of, 258 

Insurance; see State hail insur- 
ance 

Interest rates ; see Property ex- 
emption 

International Exhibition, 247 

Intertribal warfare, 169 

"Invisible government," 252, 254, 

255 
Iowa, 101, 107 
Ireland, 283 



304 STUDENTS HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 



Iron, 90 

Irrigation, 11, 240, 253 
Irving, Washington, 1, 47, 109 
Island possessions, 281 
Is-sal-rai-kar-ik-u; see Dwell in 

Sight 
Italy, 274 
Itan, 23 
Izard, Mark W., Ill, 117, 125, 

126, 141, 143, 144 
'Izard County, 128 

Jackson County, 128 

James, William H., 198 

Japan, 274 

Jaramillo, 30 

"Jayhawkers," 163 

Jefferson, President, 33, 37, 100 

Jefferson County, 58 

Joan of Arc, 276 

Joffre, General Joseph Jacques, 

285 
Johnson, The, 44 
Johnson, Hadley D., 178 
Johnson, James, 44 
Johnson, J. E., 182, 185 
Johnson, President, 165, 166 
Johnson County, 128 
Jones, Alfred D., 113 
Journal of Lewis and Clark, The, 

33 
Judges, 210; territorial, 110, 111, 

123 
Judicial districts, 123, 136 
Jumper; see Claim jumper 
Justices of the peace, 157 

Kansas, 101, 103, 107, 153, 162 
Kansas Conflict, 107 



Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 103, 104, 

107, 109 
Kansas river, 44, 49, 56, 58, 153 
Kaw river ; see Kansas river 
Kearne}^, 51, 73 

Kearny, Colonel Stephen W., 50 
Kearny's Expedition, 50 
Keel boats, 44, 77, 79, 169 
King Albert, 278 
Kinkaid, Moses, 252 
Kinkaid homesteads, 252 
Kern, Omer M., 238 
Kennard, T. P, 166 
Kennedy, B. E. B, 92, 166 
Kicking Bear, 227, 228 
Kilian, Major Julius N., 246 
Kinney, Lieutenant William S., 

247 
Kinsley, 30 
Kiowas, 176 
Kirkendall, F. P., 248 
Knights of Labor, 224 
Knox County, 24, 105 
Kountze, Augustus, 166 

LaBarge, Captain Joseph, 81 

Lafayette, General, 47, 276 

Lake, George B., 166 

Lake Michigan, 87 

Lakes, 9, 11, 12, 15; protection 
of, 258 

Lancaster County, 128, 187 

Land, 132; price of, 253; see 
Public lands 

Land commissioner ; sec Com- 
missioner of public lands 

Land grants, 189, 220; office, 
153, 194 

Larned, 30 

Latter Day Saints ; see Mormons 



INDEX 



305 



Last of the Great Scouts, 75 

Latta, John A., 81 

Laws of Nebraska, 124, 126, 128, 

129, 133, 138, 151 
Lead, 180 

Leavenworth, 71, 81 
Leavenworth, General Henry, 85, 

168, 169 
Leavenworth and Pike's Peak 

Express, 71 
Legislative apportionment, 122; 

districts, 121; sessions, 160; 

162; territorial, 124 
Legislature, state, 160, 165, 167, 

186, 189, 200, 209, 210, 212, 220, 

223, 234, 239, 244, 248, 249, 252, 

255, 256, 258, 260, 261; first 
session in Lincoln, 189; special 
session, 151; see Territorial 
legislature 

Lero}', 58 

Leshara, 28 

Lett, Henry C, 200 

Lewis, Meriweather, 3Z, 34, 46 

Lewis and Clark Expedition, 33, 
37; monument, 36 

Liberia, 274 

Liege, 277 

Lime, 5 

Limestone, 5 

Lincoln, 96, 180, 186, 187, 188, 
200, 210, 266 ; celebration, 266 ; 
land office, 194 

Lincoln, President Abraham, 74, 
90, 91, 93, 150; Emancipation 
Proclamation by, 107 ; inaugu- 
ral address, 74 

Lindsey, Z. T., 248 

Liquor, 79, 104, 129, 151, 207, 209, 
212, 256, 259, '262; interests, 

256, 257; license law, 151 



Lisa, Manuel de, 28, 45, 46, 47, 
136; expedition of, 46 

Lisa, Mrs. Mary, 46 

Little, William, 166 

Little Bad Lands, 161 ; see Bad 
Lands 

Little Blue river, 47, 58 

Little Nemaha river, exploration 
of, 35 

Live-stock industry, 233, 245, 

Lobbyists, 244; see Anti-Lobby- 
ing law 

Loess, 3, 5 

Long, Major Stephen H., 41, 42 

Long's Expedition. 41, 42 

Long's Peak, 42 

Lost Little Bird, 231; see Zint- 
kala Nuni 

Louisiana. 100, 101, 107 ; territory 
of, 39, 100, 104, 105, 109; gov- 
ernment of upper country, 103 

Louisiana Purchase, ZZ, 101 ; 
government of, 103 ; map of, 
102; states formed from, 107 

Louisville, 117 

Loup County, 128 

Loup river, 11, 20, 32, 52, 98, 116 

Louvain, 277, 

Lowe, Jesse, 146 

Lumber, 180, 194 

Lusitania, 280 

Lutheran church, 179 

L3'nxes, 15 

McClaY, LlEUTENANT-COLONEl, 

John H., 247 
McCook, 11 
McCrea, Lieutenant-Colonel John 

D., 285 
McKeighan, William A., 258 
McKelvie, Governor S. R., 264 



306 STUDENTS HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 



McKinley, President William, 249 

McLellan, Robert, 38 

McLennan, William, 189 

McNeale County, 128 

Mackinaw Boats, 79, 81, 

Mail, 71, n, 73, 74; contract, 71, 
74; daily, 72; through to the 
Pacific, 71 

Majors, 71, IZ 

Majors, Thomas J., 242 

Mallett, Paul, 30, .32 

Mallett, Pierre, 30, 32 

"Man Chief," 24, 26, 27 

Mandan Indians, 37 

Manilla, 246 

Mansfield, 96 

Mapes, Major William S., 246 

Margry Papers, 30 

Marpiya Lutta; see Red Cloud 

Marquette, T. M., 166 . 

Marshal, United States, terri- 
torial, 110, 111 

Marshall's trading point, 131 

Mason, Oliver P., 166 

Massacres, 23, 24, 97, 104, 171, 

Matlock, G. C, 169 

Maximum freight rate law; see 
Freight rate law 

Maygares, Lieutenant, 39 

Megath, S. A., 92 

Memorial day, 222 

Memorial to Congress, 125 

Merchant's lien law, 151 

Merrill, Rev, Moses, 177, 178 

Methodist church, 179 

Mexican War, 70, IZ 

Mexico, 30, 274 

Mickey, Governor John H., 250 
Mileage books, 256 

Military expedition, 167 



Military organization, first, 176; 

sec Militia 
Military posts, 36, 42, 79, 167, 169, 

170, 171; ^^e Forts 
Military road, 83, 84, 85 
Militia, 173, 231, 246, 247 
Millard, J. H, 249 
Miller George L., 145, 183 
Minnesota territory, 84, 101 ; ad- 
mitted, 107 
Mission House, 115, 137 
Missionaries, 53, 55, 62, 167, 177 
Mississippi river, ZZ, 100 
Mississippi valley, 12, 18, 81, 100 
Missouri, IZ, 101, 104, 107 
Missouri agency, 169, 173 
Missouri Compromise, 103, 107 
Missouri and Western Telegraph 

Company, 75 
Missouri Fur Company, 46 
Missouri Indians; see Missouris 
Missouri Pacific Railroad, 96 
Missouri river basin, 31 ; map of, 

31 
Missouri river, 9, Z7>, 51, 53, 55, 
56, 67, 68, 70, 82, 83, 92, 93, 120, 
167; exploration of, 33-40; 
first bridge across, 78; head of 
navigation, 11', navigation of, 
11 ; traft'ic on, 11, 81 ; see Mis- 
souri river country 
Missouri river country, 33, 51, 
55, 68, 70, 11, n, 95, 131 ; ex- 
ploration of, ZZ, 35, Zl, 39, 40, 
46; trade in, 46, 52, 79, 167; 
settlement of, 109, 195 
Missouri river valley; Indian 

question of, 167, 173 
Missouri River Fur Company, 28 
Missouris, 18, 20, 23, 36 



INDEX 



3o; 



Monarchies, 275 

Monoplies, 220 ; see Anti-monop- 
oly 

Montenegro, 274 

Morehead, Governor John H., 
258, 259 

Mormons, 68, 70, 71, 111 

Mormon Trail, 68, 70 

Morton, Acting Governor J. 
Sterling, 118, 136, 143, 148, 157, 
159, 166, 183, 218, 220, 221, 238 

Morton-Daily contest, 159 

Morton Park, 219 

Mountain sheep, 15 

Mulford, Major Harry B., 246 

Muskrat, 15 

Nance Governor Albinus, 210, 
218 

Napoleon (Bonaparte), Emperor, 
100, 101, 276 

Nashville, 117 

National cemetery, 174 

National Guard; see Militia 

National road, 66 

Nations engaged in the World 
War, 273, 274 

Native animals, 25 

Natural conditions, 1 

Navajos, 176 

Navigation, 77, 79, 81, 100; see 
Mississippi river, Missouri 
river, Platte river 

Nebraska, 101, 163, 165, 166, see 
Western Nebraska in 1876 ; ad- 
mitted, 108; in the Spanish- 
American war, 246; in the 
World War, 272; progress in, 
264; settlement of, 77; slavery 
abolished in, 107 



Nebraska bank guarantee law 
249, 256 

Nebraska City, 35, 51, 71, 7Z, 82, 
111, 117, 123, 131, 152, 171; 
slavery in, 107 

Nebraska City News, 82, 142, 183 

Nebraska day, 268 

Nebraska Farmer, The, 183 

Nebraska Indians, 18, 105 

Nebraska Institute for the Feeble 
Minded, 221 

Nebraska Medical Society, 128 

"Nebraska," or Shallow river, 60, 
103 ; see Platte river 

Nebraska Poncas, 105; see Pon- 
cas 

Nebraska Republican, The, 184 

Nebraska territory, 18, 53, 79, 83, 
84, 103, 104 ; admitted, 163, 165 
166; established, 109; first capi- 
tal, 103, 113; government of, 
103, 104 108, 110, 111, 120; in 
1854, map of, 80; in the Civil 
War, 176, 177; legislative dis- 
tricts, 121 ; military post in, 
171 ; organized, 104 ; popula- 
tion, 109 ; school system, 130 ; 
supreme court. 111; territor- 
ial assembly. 111; territorial 
officers, 110, 111; the first 
Thanksgiving, 122 

Nebraska University; see Uni- 
versity of Nebraska, 

Negro suffrage, 165 

Nemaha County, 128 

Nemaha river, Big, 20; explora- 
tion of, 35 

Nemaha river, Little, 35 

Neutral nations in the World 
War, 274 



308 STUDENTS HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 



Neville, Governor Keith, 260, 261, 

262 
New Mexico, 55 
New Orleans, 30, 100, 101 
Newspaper, 113, 142, 182; list of, 

185 
Nicaragua, 274 
Ni-co-mi, 53 
Niobrara river, 7, 9, 14, 24, 98, 

105 ; exploration of, 30, 32 
Nixon, Colonel, 153 
Nodaway river, 40 
Normal board, 212 
Normal training, 264 
Norris, George W., 259, 264 
North Dakota, 11, 101 
North Loup river, falls of, 235 
North Platte district, 138, 146, 

147, 176, 194 
North Platte river, 11, 20, 75 

96; explorers on, 41 
North Sea, 281 

Northern Pacific railroad, 11 
Norton, Daniel, 131 
Norway, 274 

O'Fallon Benjamin, 167, 169 

Ogallala, 97 

Ogallalla Sioux, 24 

Ogden, 90 

Oil inspector, 223 

Oklahoma, 23, 105 

Old Santa Fe Trail, 56 

"Old Trails Route," 193 

Olsen, Lt.-Col. Emil, 246 

Omaha, 36, 68, 72>, 78, 83, 84, 85, 
90, 92, 96, 111, 113, 115. 121, 
124, 126, 146, 148, 152, 266 

OmaJm Bee, The, 184, 214, 242 

Omaha creek, 36 



Omaha Daily Herald, The, 143, 

183 
Omaha Indian agency, 251 
Omaha Indians; see Omahas 
Omaha Ncbraskan, The, 142, 185 
Omaha reserve, 83 
Omaha World-Herald, The, 143, 

184 
Omahas, 18, 20, 23, 24, 28, 53, 

105, 134, 167, 171, 173, 179, 229 
One hudredth meridian, 90, 93, 96 
Orchards, 181, 182 
Oregon, 59 

Oregon route; see Oregon Trail 
Oregon trail, 41, 42, 47, 48, 49, 50, 

55, 56, 58, 60, 66, 68, 70, 71, 7Z, 

74, 113, 171; map of, 57; see 

Stuart Trail 
Orlando, Premier Vittorie Eman- 

uele, 285 
Osage river, exploration of, 39 
Osage village, 39 
Otoe County, 128 
Otoes, 18, 20,* 23, 36, 103, 171, 

178, 179 
Otter, 15 

"Overland Mail," 71, 106, 193 
Overland route, 40 
Overland Trail, 4 

Pacific coast, 71, 87, 92, 125 

Pacific Fur Company, 39 

Palladium, TheTwi, 136, 182 

Panama, 274 

Panama Canal, 281 

Panic of 1857, 139; of 1873, 202; 

of 1893, 238 
Panthers, 15 
Paper money, 139 
Papillion creek, 40 



INDEX 



309 



Parker, Joel, 64 
Parker, Samuel, 62 
Parkman Francis, 59 
Parrish, Randall, 97 
Passenger rates, 222, 223, 236, 

244, 245, 249, 255 
Passes, railroad, 22, 244, 245, 249, 

255 
Pathfinder dam, 253 
Pattison, James W., 154 
Pawnee Confederacy, 23 
Pawnee County, 128 
Pawnee trail, 41 
Pawnee village, 13, 39, 211 
Pawnees, 18, 20, 24, 26, 36, 39, 

156, 173, 179, 182, 209 
Pendleton, 117 

Penitentiary; see State Peniten- 
tiary 
Pensions, of old soldiers, 240; 

for Spanish American War 

veterans, 249 
People's independent convention, 

224 
Peoples' Independent party, 238, 

240 ; see Independent party ; see 

Populists 
Peoples' Independent Party con- 
vention, 224, 240 
People's territorial ticket, 155 
Pershing, General John J., 285 
Persia, 274 
Peter Karageorgevitch, King of 

the Serbians, 279 
Pharmacy, Nebraska state board 

of, 223 
Phillipine Islands, 246 
Phonograph, 210 
Physical valuation of railroads, 

law, 256 



Pierce, President Franklin, 111, 
122 

Pierce County, 120, 128 

Pierre, 77 

Pierre formation, 161 

Pike, Lieutenant Zebulon M., 39 

Pike's Peak, 39, 180 

Pike's Peak Express, 71, 74 

Pilcher, Major, 169 

Pine Ridge, 5, 161; agency of, 
209, 226, 227 

Pioneers, 3, 9, 51, 85, 176; see 
Early settlers 

Pit-a-le-shar-u, see Man Chief 

Piute Indians, 227 

Placerville, California, 72, 73, 74 

Plains, see Great Plains 

Plains tribes, 18, 20, 22 

Plant life, 12, 14, 18 

Plaster, 7 

Platte river, 2, 9, 12, 53, 58, 70, 
79, 81, 82, 83, 90, 96, 98, 103, 
115, 121, 128; explorers on, 32, 
35, 40, 41, 47, 49, 50; Indians 
of, 23 , 171, 175; irrigation 
along, 253; Islands of, 13; 
named, 32; see Nebraska river 

Platte valley, 81, 85, 92, 96, 98, 
153, 156, 171, 231 

Platte Valley route, 92 

Plattsmouth, 81, 126, 150, 154, 
206 

Plumbe, John, 85 

Pocket gopher, 17 

Poland, 281 

PoHtical: awakening, 252; cam- 
paigns, 189, 200, 218, 219, 225, 
242, 244, 256, 257, 259; con- 
ditions, see Political situation ; 
conventions, 253; first, 148; 



310 STUDENTS HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 



state, 166, 203, 224; see Demo- 
cratic, Peoples' Independent 
Party, Republican conventions ; 
delegates, 150 ; organization, 
142, 148; parties, 148, 214, 220; 
platforms, 155, 217, 220, 223, 
224, 225, 236, 238, 240, 244, 254, 
260; situation, 223, 258, 259, 
261 ; in 1879, 217 ; reforms, see 
Reforms; struggle, 254; trend 
of 1886, 223; unrest, 218 

Politics of 1910, 257 

Ponca creek, 23 

Poncas, 18, 20, 23, 105, 171, 209; 
see Nebraska Poncas 

Pony Express, 7Z, 74, 75, 106 

Poppleton, A. J., 92 

Popular sovereignty, 144, 155 

Population, 120, 137, 196, 207 ; of 
Louisiana Purchase, 101 ; of 
Nebraska territory, 109; per- 
centage enlisted during Civil 
War, 162 

Population of the Allied nations, 
274 

Populist party, 214, 224, 225 ; see 
Peoples' Independent party 

Port Nehf river, 56 

Portugal, 274 

Post office, 76 

Postal telegraph, 236 

Potash, 5 

Potash lakes, 5 

Potatoes, 5 

Powers, J. H., 224, 226 

Poynter, Governor William A., 
248, 249 

Prairie, The, 2, 15 

Prairie: dog, 17; fires, 7, 180, 
202 



Prairies, 3, 5, 67, 93, 109, 110, 116, 

180, 194, 215 
"Prairie Schooner," 127 
Pre-emption law, 162, 215 
Pre-emptions, 194 
Presbyterian church, 179 
Presbyterian Mission, 111 
"Press," see Newspapers 
Primaries, 259 

Primary election law, 150; 
amended, 249; see Direct Pri- 
mary law 
Principal meridian, 134, 135 
Proclamations, 123, 165. 176 
Products, 179, 180, 182; see Na- 
ture's products. Territorial 
products 
Progress in Nebraska, 264 
Progressive measures, 259 
Prohibition, 129, 201, 217, 257, 
260; amendment, 225, 260, 261, 
262 ; convention, 203 ; party, 202 
Promontory, 93 
Property exemption and interest 

rates, 130 
Protection against the Indians, 

176 
Prussia, 282 
Prussian autocracy, 277, 
Pryor, Ensign Nathaniel, Z7 
PiAlic institutions, 125, 187, 191, 
192; see University of Ne- 
braska 
Public lands, 126, 133, 150, 152, 
189, 191, 215; sales, 132, 150, 
151, 152, 197 
Public roads ; see Roads 
Puget Sound, 84 
Pure food law, 255 
Putty, 7 



INDEX 



311 



QUIVERA 30 

Railroads; 68, 11, 82, 85, 86, 90, 
92, 93, 95-97, 128, 195, 215; 
acts regulating, 212, 234, 239, 
253; charges, 222, 236; emp- 
ployees liability law, 255 ; fares, 
223', 236, 244, 254, 256; freight 
rates, 236, 256; lands, 87, 88, 95, 
189, 190; mileage books, 256; 
passes, 222, 223, 224, 245, 249, 
255 ; physical valuation law, 
256; subsidies to, IZ, 88, 189; 
taxation, 254, 256 

Railway commission, 90, 220, 223, 
236, 253, 254, 

Railway strike of 1882, 213 

Rainfall, 9 

Ranches, 9, 215 ; development of, 
98 

Ranges, 97; see Cattle ranges 

Range line, 135 

Rawhide, 79 

Rebates, 212, 221 

Red Buttes, 75 

"Red Cloud," 24, 25; agency of, 
209 

Red Cross, 272, 284 

Reed, A. L., 248 

Reeves, Mills S., 154 ' 

Reforms, political, 252, 256, 257 

Regulators, 133 

Representative government, 183, 
284 

Republican convention, 148, 155, 
166, 189, 192, 217, 219, 223, 236, 
242, 252, 254; party, 150, 153, 
159, 165, 200, 203, 204 

Republican Pawnee, 23 

Republican primaries, 259 



Republican river, 7, 9, 12, 39, 49, 

90, 98; irrigation along, 253 
Republican valley, 215; irrigation 

in, 253 
Reveoue law, 151 
Rhine river, 283 
Richardson, Origen D., 124 
Richardson, Governor W. A., 

118, 144, 147, 151, 152 
Richardson County, 120, 124 
Riots, 213 

River navigation, see Navigation 
River traffic, 79, 81 ; see Naviga- 
tion, Transportation. 
River transportation, 11 
Rivers, 6; map of, 9; protection 

of, 258 
Road building, federal aid of, 260 
Road commissioners, 131 
Roads, ^6, 83, 84, 128, 130, 134; 

see Oregon Trail, Railroads, 

Routes of travel, Territorial 

roads, Transportation. 
Robertson, Lieutenant, 157 
Robertson, William L. 217 
Rocky Mountain Fur Company, 

168 
Rocky Mountains, Zl , 42, 59, 71, 

84, 88, 93; gold discovered in, 

180; region, 12, 14, 49 
Rocky Ridge, 75 
Rodents, 15 
Roosevelt, President Theodore, 

259, 266 
Rosebud reservation, 227 
Rosewater, Edward, 184, 248, 250, 

254 
Rosewater, Victor, 184 
Roumania, 274, 282 
Round-up, 98 



312 STUDENTS HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 



Routes of travel, 1, 33, 39, 41, 46, 
47, 48, 50, 55-6, 58, 59, 70, 71. 
75, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 90. 92, 
131 ; see Astoria Expedition, 
Lewis and Clark Expedition, 
Oregon Trail, Santa Fe Trail 

Riilo, 96 

Running water river, 83 

Russell, W. H. 71, 73, 74 

Russia, 274, 279, 280 

Rilsso- Turkish war, 278 

St. Joseph, 72, 73, 74, 117 

St. Joseph Trail, 59 

St. Louis, 37, 46, 56, 59, 71, 79, 
81, 104, 117 

St. Mary, 113, 115 

Sacramento, 71, 73, 74 

Salaries, of legislators, 258 

Saline County, 128 

Saloon, 212 

Salt, 128, 180 

Salt creek valley, 187 

Salt Lake City, 71, 73, 74, 76 

San Francisco, 71, 73, 74 

San Marino, 274 

Sand dunes, 7 

Sand Hills, 1,3,5,7,9, 11,20,215 

Santa Fe, 30, 32, 39, 56 

Santa Fe Railroad; see Atchison, 
Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad 

Santa Fe Trail, 42, 55, 58, 90 

Santee Agency Government In- 
dian school, 257 

Santee Sioux ; see Sante^s 

Santees, 24, 105 

Sarpy County, 53 

Sarpy, Peter A., 51, 52, 81, 115, 
137 

Sauk (Sac) Indians, 105 



Saunders Governoi^ Alvin, 92, 
118, 160, 163, 165, 196 

Saunders County, 23, 27 

Saunsoci, Louis, 28 

Savage, Governor, 250 

Savings banks, 236; see State 
banking law 

Saw-mills, 180 

Scandals in the state govern- 
ment, 191 

Scharmann, Major Conrad F., 
247 

Schlegel Rapids and Falls, 243 

School: funds, 242; growth, 207; 
lands, 239; tax, 260; report, 
142 ; semi-centennial celebra- 
tion, 267; system, 130, 141; 
agricultural education, 264 ; 
compulsory educational law, 
223; free high school tuition 
law, 264; laws regarding, 260; 
normal training, 264; voca- 
tional training; 261 

Scientific American, 82 

Scientific expedition, 41, 42 

Scotland, 283 

Scott, John Prindle, 268 

Scottsbluff, 11, 58, 62, 65, 231 

Scottsbluff County, 64, 79; ex- 
plorers in. 41 ; irrigation in, 
253 

Scout's Rest Ranch, 75 

Second Nebraska Infantry; see 
Second Nebraska regiment 

Second Nebraska regiment, 246 

Secretary, territorial, 110, 111 

Section lines, 131 

Sections of land, 134 

Seed, law governing sale of, 258 

Self-governing states, 284 



INDEX 



313 



Self-government, 157 

Semi-Centennial celebration, 266, 
267, 268 

Seminole War, 48 

Senate; see State senate 

Senatorial districts, 204 

Senators; see United States 
senators 

Sentegaleska ; see Spotted Tail 

Serbia, 278, 279, 281, 282 

Sermon, first preached in Ne- 
braska, 178 

Settlements, 45, 84, 109, 111, 115, 
120, 128, 132, 190, 195, 208, 209; 
western, 215 ; see Early settlers 

Settlers, see Early settlers 

Seward, Secretary, 93 

Shahaka, Z7 

Shallenberger, Governor Ashton 
C, 254, 256, 257 

Sharp, Joseph L., 124 

Sheldon, Governor George L., 
254, 255, 256 

Sheridan County, 5 

Sherman, General William T., 
176 

Short Bull, 227 

Shoshones, 24 

Siam, 274 

Sibley, General, 175- 

Sierra Nevada mountains, 88 

Silver; see Free coinage of 

Siouan, 18 

Sioux, 18, 24, 28 

Sioux City, 36, 81 

Sioux Indians, 169, 171, 173*; see 
Santee Sioux ; nation, 25 ; out- 
break, 226; uprising, 175; the 
great war, 172 

Si-ri-lai-shar-roon-u, 216 



Sites, George L., 83 

Sitting Bull, 227, 228 

Slavery, 105, 107, 137, 153, 157; 
in Nebraska, 107, 120 

Slocumb law, 212, 256 

Smuggling, 79 

Snake Indians, 41 

Snake river, 40, 56; falls of, 10 

Snow, 9, 216 

Social unrest, 259 

Sod house, 7, 205, 215 

"Soddy"; see Sod house 

Soil, 3, 5, 

Soldiers' and Sailors' home, 249 

Solomon river, 20 

South Africa, 284 

South Carolina, 117 

South Dakota, 101 

South Pass, 41, 49, 84 

South Platte: district, 128, 146, 
147, 176, 194; people, 121, 129; 
country, 12, 96, 121, 129, 146, 
147, 153, 159; river, 58 

Southern states, 162 

Spain, 100, 274 

Spanish-American war, 246 

Spanish expedition, 39 

Spanish explorers, 30 39, 

Specie, payments of, 217 

"Spotted Tail," 24, 25, 26; 
agency, 209 

Squatters, 132 

Stage-coach, 71, 72, 74, 111, 117; 
daily, 72 

Stage Routes, 82 

State banking law, 143, 236, 249, 
256 

State board of agriculture, 197, 
222; territorial board of agri- 
culture, 152 



314 STUDENTS HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 



State board of control, 258, 265 

State board of health, 234 

State commission, 210 

State constitution, 157, 163, 165, 
198, 204, 205, 206; amendment 
of, 258; sec Constitutional 
amendments, , Constitutional 
convention 

State elections ; see Elections 

State fair, 249 

State finances, 195, 242 

State flower, 244 

State funds, 242 

State government, 186; scandals 
in, 191 

State hail insurance, 260 

State Historical Society, 266, 292 

State house of representatives, 
206 

State Insane Asylum, see Insane 
Asylum 

State institutions, 187, 196, 198, 
221; board of control of, 258; 
commissioners of, 206, 207 ; see 
University of Nebraska 

State legislature; see Legislature 

State name, 244; see Tree Plant- 
ers State 

State Normal Board; see Nor- 
mal board 

State officers, election of, 166 

State oil inspector ; see Oil in- 
spector 

State penitentiary, 187, 196, 212; 
board of control of, 258 

State senate, 206 

State song, 268 

State University; see University 
of Nebraska 

Statehood, 163 



States admitted, formed from 
Louisiana Purchase, 107; ad- 
mitted before Nebraska, 107 

Steamboat, first on Missouri 
river, 42, 77, 81, 82; early type, 
43; "Independence," 44; traf- 
fic, 77 

Steamboat captains, 81 

Steam wagon, 82 

Steppes of Siberia, 56 

Stock-yards, 245 

Stotsenburg, Major John M, 246 

Stout, W. H. B., 212 

Streams, 9 

Strickland, Silas A., 136, 154 

Stuart, Robert. 40, 41, 47, 58 

Stuart trail, 47 ; see Oregon Trail 

Sturges, Charles W., 166 

Sublette, Milton, 47 

Submarine, 280 

Subsidies to railroads, 73, 88, 189 

Suffrage, 165, 264; limited, 260 

Sugar beets, 180; see Beet sugar 
industry 

Sunflowers, 70 

Sully, General, 175 

Superintendent, County, 130, 
260; State, 130, 260; of public 
instruction, 130, 207 

Superior, 7 

Supreme court, 210; territorial, 
111, 136 

Surveyor-general, 134 

Surveys, 131, 132, 133, 134, 141, 
150; map of, 135 

Sutton, A. L., 260, 262 

Sweden, 274 

Sweetwater river, 75 

Switzerland, 274 

Sydenham, Moses, 76, 185 



INDEX 



315 



Taft President William H., 
258 

Tapage Pawnee, 23 

Taxes, 140, 157, 158, 223, 258 

Taylor, Edward B., 189 

Taylor, Major Wallace C, 246 

Telegraph, 74, 75, 128 

Telephone, 210, 217 

Temperance movement, 209 

Temperature, 11 

Ten years' struggle, 254 

Tepees; see Indian homes 

Terminal railway taxation law, 
256 

Territorial : board of agri- 
culture, 152; capital, 113, 123, 
124; council, 123, 124; elec- 
tions, see Elections ; fair, 182 ; 
finances, 140, 141 ; government, 
103, 104, 108, 110, 111, 120, 126; 
house of representatives, 123, 
124; law of U. S, 110, 118; 
laws, 126; legislature, 81, 111, 
121, 122, 123, 124, 126, 138, 141 
142, 143, 144, 151, 156, 157; 
officers, 111, 116, 117; organi- 
zation, 122, 123, see Nebraska 
Territory; period, 167; press, 
see Newspapers ; products, 
179; roads, 83, 128, 130, 132, 
see Roads; Secretary, 110, 111 

Texas, 71, 97, 100, 103 

Thanksgiving, first in Nebraska 
territory, 122 

Thayer, General John M., 157, 
173, 176, 177, 196, 223, 234 

Third Nebraska regiment, 246 

Thomas, Edward W., 166 

Thomas Jefferson, The, 44 

Thompson, David E., 250 



Thompson, W. H., 250 

Three Crossings, 75 

Thurston, John M., 222, 242 

Thurston County, 105 

Timber, 109, 180, 194; see Trees 

Tipton, Thomas W., 189, 218 

Toadstool Park, 237 

Topography, 3 

Towns; see Early towns 

Townships, 134, 135 

Tracy, Major Ernest H., 246 

Trader's Point, 52, 115 

Trading posts, ZT , 42, 49, 52, 145 

Traffic, 42, 56, (£, 71, 11, 79, 81 
111 

Train, George Francis, 92 

Trans-continental railroads ; see 
Railroads 

Trans-Mississippi Congress, 248; 
country, 30; exposition, 247, 
248 

Traders : see Fur Traders 

Transportation, 71, IZ, 77, 79, 81, 
82, 84, 90, 92, 93, 95, 96, 129; 
board of, 223 ; see Stage-coach, 
Central Overland and Pike's 
Peak Express, Railroads, Pa- 
-cific Mail, Pony Express, 
steamboat, railroads 

Trappers, 15, 42, 62, 79 

Travel, 1, 33, 39, 41, 46, 47, 48, 
50, 55, 56, 59, 64, 67, 72, 111, 
125, 209, 269; cost of, 72, 72,, 
82 

Travelers, 59, 64, 66, 83, 85, 96, 
104, 207, 209 

Treaties, between France and 
Spain, 100; see Indian treaties 

Treaty agreements, 285 ; obliga- 
tions, 274, 283 



316 STUDENTS HISTORY OF NEBRASKA 



Tree claim law, 215 

Tree Planter's State, 244; sec 

State name 
Trees, 5, 12, 14, 250 
Triple Entente, 280 
Truxbury, Albert, 203 
Turkey, 273, 281 
Turtle Hill river, 84 

Union Pacific Railroad, 77, 78 
84, 85, 86, 88, 90, 92, 93, 94, 95, 
96, 97, 125, 162, 166, 191, 194, 
209, 222; first bridge across 
the Missouri river, 7^; sale of, 
245 

Union Pacific Raihcay, The, 95 

Union Pacific Railroad, "Over- 
land Limited," 95 

United States: bonds, 88, 90, 
101; in the World War, 274, 
280, 281, 282; marshal, 110, 
111, 125; Senators, 212, 248, 
249, 252, 254; election of, 189, 
196, 240, 256; supreme court, 
221, 235; topographical survey, 
41 ; surveys, 134, maps of, 133 ; 
volunteers, 247 

Utah, 70 

University cadets, 223 

University of Nebraska, 12S, 187, 
191, 223, 258, 265 

University extension, 258 

Unrest ; see Political unrest, So- 
cial unrest 

Van Wyck, 238 

Vifquain, Lieutenant-Colonel 

Victor, 246 
Vincennes, 103 
Virgin Islands, 281 



Virginia City, 84, 
Vocational training, 261 

WaddEll, 71, 73 
Wade, Senator, 165 
Wagon train, 48, 55, 58, 64 
Walker, Provisional Governor 

William, 164 
Walla Walla, 84 
Warbonnet Canyon, 161 
"War lords," 281 
Washington, D. C, 126 
Washington County, 120, 121 
Washoe silver mines, 74 
Water power, 9, 11 
Wattles, G. W., 248 
Webster, John Lee, 204, 266, 267, 

292 
West Point Military Academy, 

47 
Western Nebraska in 1876, 205 
Western settlements, 215 
Westport, Kansas, 56 
White Chief, 53 
White Nation, 67 
White river, 227 
White woman, first to reside in 

Nebraska, 46 
White traders, 37, 38, 40, 42, 46, 

52 ; see Fur traders 
Whitney, Asa, 85, 88 
"Wild Cat Banks," 138, 139, 142 
Wild Hay, 215 
Wild horses, 15 
Wilkinson, General James, 39 
Williams, Major Fred A., 246 
Wilson, President Woodrow, 

259, 260, 266, 284 
Wind river mountains, 47 
Winnebago, 36 



INDEX 



17 



Winnebago agency, 190 

Winnebago grave yard, 190 

Winnebago Indians, 23, 105 

Winter Quarters, 70, 111, 115, 
116 

Wolf Pawnees, 23, 179 

Wolves, 15; see Bounty 

Wolverine, 15 

Woman suffrage, 264; see Suff- 
rage 

Wood river, 23 

Wood River Center, 20 

Woodston, Samuel H., 71 

Wooley, Colonel, 168 

Woman suffrage, 217 

World War, 272, 275 ; causes of, 
280; see Europe, war in. Na- 
tions engaged in 

Workmen's compensation act ; 
see Employees' compensation 
act 



World's Columbian exposition, 

240 
Wounded Knee, battle of, 172, 

228 
Wyoming, 101 



Yankton Indians, 208 
Yellow Bird, 230 
Yellowstone, 77 
Yellowstone Expedition, 42 ; 

river, 42, 56, 77, 169 
Y. M. C. A., 284 
Ypres, battle of, 285 
Y. W. C. A., 284 
Young, Brigham, 93 
York County, 128 
Yutan, 23 

ZiNTKALA Nuni; See Lost Little 
Bird 



